PREFACE.
[][]I See no more Reason, why the Sordidness of some Workmen, should be the cause of contempt upon Manual Operations, than that the excellent Invention of a Mill should be dispis'd, because a blind Horse draws in it. And tho' the Mechanicks be, by some, accounted Ignoble and Scandalous? yet it is very well known, that many Gentlemen in this Nation, of good Rank and high Quality, are conversant in Handy-Works: And o⯑ther Nations exceed us in numbers of such. How pleasant and healthey this their Diver⯑sion is, their Minds and Bodies find; and how Harmless and Honest, all sober men may judge?
That Geometry, Astronomy, Per⯑spective, Musick, Navigation, Archi⯑tecture, &c. are excellent Sciences, all that know but their very Names will confess: Yet to what purpose would Geometry serve, were it not to contrive Rules for Handy-Works? Or how could Astronomy be known to any perfection▪ but by Instruments made by Hand? [] What Perspective should we have to delight our Sight? What Musick to ravish our Ears? What Navigation to Guard and Enrich our Country? Or what Architecture to defend us from the Inconveniencies of different Weather, without Manual Operations? Or how waste and useless would many of the Productions of this and other Counties be, were it not for Manufactures.
To dive into the Original of the Mecha⯑nicks is impossible, therefore I shall not offer at it; only I shall say, it is Rational to think, that the Mechanicks began with Man, he being the only Creature that Nature has imposed most Necessity upon to use it, endow'd with grea⯑test Reason to contrive it, and adapted with pro⯑perest Members (as Instruments) to perform it.
Nor is it easie to find by any Authority, what part of the Mechanicks was first Practised by Man; therefore I shall wave that too, and only consider, that if we our selves were the first Men, what Branch of the Mechanicks we should first Need, and have recourse to.
I have considered, and Answer, That without the Invention of Smithing prima⯑rily, most other Mechanick Invention [] would be at a stand: The Instruments, or Tools, that are used in them, being either made of Iron, or some other matter, form'd by the help of Iron. But pray take Notice, that by Iron, I also mean Steel, it being originally Iron.
Nor would I have you understand, that when I name the Mechanicks, I mean that rough and Barbarous sort of working which is used by the Natives of America, and some other such Places; for, though they did indeed make Houses, Canoes, Earth⯑en Pots, Bows, Arrows, &c. without the help of Iron, because they had then none amongst them: Yet since Iron is now known to them, they leave of their old way of working without it, and betake themselves to the use of it. Nor are, at this day, (though now they have in part the use of Iron) their Machines made by good and ready Rules of Art; for they know neither of Rule, Square, or Compass; and what they do, is done by Tedious Working, and he that has the best Eye at Guessing, works best upon the Straight, Square or Circle, &c.
The Lord Bacon, in his Natural His⯑tory, reckons that Philosophy would be [] improv'd, by having the Secrets of all Trades lye open; not only because much Experi⯑mental Philosophy, is Coucht amongst them; but also that the Trades themselves might, by a Philosopher, be improv'd. Besides, I find, that one Trade may borrow many Eminent Helps in Work of another Trade.
Hitherto I cannot learn that any hath under⯑taken this Task, though I could have wisht it had been performed by an abler hand then mine; yet, since it is not, I have vetured upon it.
I thought to have given these Exer⯑cises, the Title of The Doctrine of Handy-Crafts; but when I better con⯑sidered the true meaning of the Word Handy-Crafts, I found the Doctrine would not bear it; because Hand-Craft signifies Cunning, or Sleight, or Craft of the Hand, which cannot be taught by Words, but is only gained by Practise and Exercise; therefore I shall not undertake, that with the bare reading of these Exer⯑cises, any shall be able to perform these Handy-Works; but I may safely tell you, that these are the Rules that e⯑very one that will endeavour to perform [] them must follow; and that by the true ob⯑serving them, he may, according to his stock of Ingenuity and Diligence, sooner or later, inure his hand to the Cunning or Craft of working like a Handy-Craft, and consequently be able to perform them in time.
For the Reason aforesaid I intend to begin with Smithing, which comprehends not only the Black-Smith's Trade, but takes in all Trades which use either Forge or File, from the Anchor-Smith, to the Watch-Maker; they all working by the same Rules, tho' not with equal exactness, and all using the same Tools, tho' of several Sizes from those the common Black-Smith uses, and that according to the various purposes they are applied to: And in order to it, I shall first shew you how to set up a Forge, and what Tools you must use in the Black-Smith's work; then the Rules, and seve⯑ral Circumstances of Forging, till your Work come to the File: Then of the seve⯑ral Sorts of Iron that are commonly used; and what sort is fittest for each purpose. Afterwards of Filing in general, and the Rules to be observed in it, in the making of [] Jacks, Hinges, Screws, Clocks, Watch⯑es, &c. In which Examples, you will find all other Sorts of Forging or Fi⯑ling work whatsoever comprehended. And lastly, as a close to Smithing, I shall Ex⯑ercise upon Steel, and its several Sorts, and how to Order and Temper it for its several Uses; and what Sort is fittest for each particular purpose; as which is fittest for Edge-Tools, which for Springs, which for Punches, &c.
Some perhaps would have thought it more Proper, to have introduced these Exer⯑cises with a more Curious, and less Vul⯑gar Art, than that of Smithing; but I am not of their Opinion; for Smithing is in all parts, as curious a Handy-Craft, as any is: Besides, it is a great Introduct⯑ion to most other Handy-Works, as Joy⯑nery, Turning, &c. they (with the Smith) working upon the Straight, Square, or Circle, though with different Tools, upon different Matter; and they all ha⯑ving dependance upon the Smith's Trade, and not the Smith upon them.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
Of SMITHING in General.
[1]Definition.
SMITHING is an Art-Manual, by which an irregular Lump (or several Lumps) of Iron, is wrought into an intended Shape.
This Definition, needs no Explanation; therefore I shall proceed to give you an Account of the Tools a Smith uses; not but that (they being so common) I suppose you do already know them; but partly because they may require some precaution in setting them up fittest to your use; and partly because it be⯑hoves you to know the Names, Smiths call the several parts of them by; that when I name them in Smith's Language (as I shall oft have occa⯑sion to do in these Exercises) you may the easier understand them, as you read them.
Of setting up a Smith's Forge.
THE Hearth, or Fire-place of the Forge mark⯑ed A. (in Plate 1.) is to be built up from your floor with Brick about two foot and an half, or sometimes two foot nine Inches high, accord⯑ing to the purpose you design your Forge for; for if your Forge be intended for heavy work, your Hearth must lie lower than it need be for light [2] work, for easiness of management, and so broad as you think convenient: It may be built with hollow Arches underneath, to set several things out of the way. The Back of the Forge is built up⯑right to the top of the Ceiling, and inclosed o⯑ver the Fire-place with a Hovel, which ends in a Chimney to carry away the Smoak, as B. In the back of the Forge against the Fire-place, is fixed a thick Iron Plate, and a taper Pipe in it about five Inches long, called a Tewel, or (as some call it) a Tewel-Iron marked *, which Pipe comes through the Back of the Forge, as at C. Into this taper Pipe or Tewel is placed the Nose, or Pipe of the Bellows. The Office of this Tewel, is only to pre⯑serve the Pipe of the Bellows, and the back of the Forge about the Fire-place from burning. Right against the Back is placed at about twenty Inches, or two foot distance, the Trough, and reaches commonly through the whole breadth of the Forge, and is as broad and deep as you think good, as at D. The Bellows is placed behind the Back of the Forge, and hath as aforesaid, its Pipe fitted into the Pipe of the Tewel, and hath one of its Boards fixed so that it move not upwards or downwards. At the Ear of the upper Bellows board is fastened a Rope, or sometimes a Thong of Leather, or an Iron Chain or Rod, as E; which reaches up to the Rocker, and is fastened there to the farther end of the Handle, as at F. This Han⯑dle is fastened a cross a Rock-staff, which moves between two Cheeks upon the Center-pins, in two Sockets, as at G. So that by drawing down this Handle, the moving Board of the Bellows ri⯑ses, and by a considerable weight set on the top of its upper Board sinks down again, and by this Agitation performs the Office of a pair of Bellows.
Of the Anvil.
[3]THE shape of a Black Smith's Anvil I have inserted in this Figure, though it is some⯑times made with a Pike, or Bickern, or Beak-iron, at one end of it, whose use I shall shew you when I come to round hollow work. Its Face must be very flat and smooth, without Flaws, and so hard that a File will not touch it (as Smiths say, when a File will not cut, or race it.) The upper Plain A. is called the Face; it is commonly set upon a wooden Block, that it may stand very steady and solid, and about two foot high from the floor, or sometimes higher, according to the stature of the Person that is to work at it.
Of the Tongs.
THere are two sorts of Tongs used by Smiths; the one the Straight-nosed Tongs, used when the work is short, and somewhat flat, and gene⯑rally for all Plate Iron. The other Crooked-nos'd Tongs, to be used for the forging small Bars, or such thicker work, as will be held within the Returns of their Chaps. The Chaps are placed near the Joint, because, that considering the length of the Handles, they hold the Iron faster than they would do, were they placed farther from the Joint, as in the Fig. 3.4. A the Chaps, B the Joint, CC the Handles.
Of the Hammer, and the Sledge.
THere are several sorts of Hammers used by Black-Smiths; as first the Hand-hammer, which is sometimes bigger, or less, according to the Strength of the Work-man; but it is a Ham⯑mer of such weight, that it may be weilded, or governed, with one hand at the Anvil. Second⯑ly, the Up-hand Sledge, used by under-Workmen, when the Work is not of the largest, yet requires [4] help to batter, or draw it out; they use it with both their hands before them, and seldom lift their Hammer higher than their head. Thirdly, the About Sledge is the biggest Hammer of all, and is also used by under-Workmen, for the batter⯑ing, or drawing out of the largest Work; and then they hold the farther end of the Handle in both their Hands, and swinging the Sledge above their Heads, they at Arms end let fall as heavy a Blow as they can upon the Work. There is also another Hammer used by them, which they call a Rivetting-hammer. This is the smallest Hammer of all, and very rarely used at the Forge, unless your Work prove very small; but upon cold I⯑ron it is used for rivetting, or setting straight, or crooking small work. In Fig. 5. A the Face, B the Pen, C the Eye, D the Handle.
Of the Vice.
THE Vice must be set up very firmly that it shake not, and stand upright with its Chaps, parallel or range with your Work-bench; because square filing, is a great piece of good Work⯑manship in a Smith; and should the Vice not stand upright, and range with the Work-bench, the Chaps pinching upon two square sides, would make the top side of your work either lean to⯑wards you, or from you; and consequently you filing (as a good Workman ought to do) upon the flat, or Horizontal Plain of your work, would take off more of that Angle, or Edge, which ri⯑ses higher than the Plain, and less off that Edge, that lies lower than the Plain; so that one Angle being higher, or lower, than the other, your work instead of being filed Square, would be filed Squa⯑re-wise, when you shall have filed all its flat sides, and that more or less, according to the leaning of the Chaps of your Vice. AA the Face, hath its [5] two ends in a straight Line with the middle of its Face, or Plain. B the Chaps must be cut with a Bastard Cut▪ and very well tempered; C the Screw Pin, cut with a square strong Worm. D the Nut, or Screw Box, hath also a square Worm, and is brazed into the round Box. E the Spring must be made of good Steel, and very well temper'd: Where note that the wider the two ends of the Spring stand asunder, the wider it throws the Chaps of the Vice open. F the Foot must be straight, and therefore will be the stronger to bear good heavy blows upon the work screwed in the Chaps of the Vice, that it neither bow, or tremble.
Of the Hand-Vice.
OF the Hand-Vice are two Sorts, one is called the Broad Chapt Hand-Vice, the other the Square Nos'd Hand-Vice. The Office of the Hand-Vice, is to hold small work in, that may require often turning about; it is held in the left hand, and each part of your work turned upwards successively, that you have occasion to file with your right. The Square-nos'd Hand-Vice is sel⯑dom used, but for filing small Globulous Work, as the Heads of Pins that round off towards the Edges, &c. And that because the Chaps do not stand shouldering in the way, but that the flat of the File may the better come at the Edges. Their Chaps must be cut as the Vice aforesaid, and well tempered.
Of the Plyers.
PLyers are of two Sorts, Flat Nos'd, and Round Nos'd. Their Office is to hold, and fasten upon all small work, and to fit it in its place. The Round Nos'd Plyers are used for turning, or bowing Wyer, or small Plate, into a circular Form. The Chaps of the Fla [...] N [...]s'd Plyes, must [6] also be cut and temper'd, as the Chaps of the Vice. A the Nose, B the Chaps, C the Joint, DD the Handles.
Of the Drill, and Drill-Bow.
DRills are used for the making such Holes as Punches will not conveniently serve for; as a piece of work that hath already its Shape, and must have an hole, or more, made in it. Here the force of a Punch, will set your work out of order and shape, because it will both bat⯑ter the Surface of the Iron, and stretch its Sides out: The shank of a Key also, or some such long Hole, the Punch cannot strike, because the Shank is not forged with substance sufficient; but the Drill, tho' your work be filed and po⯑lish'd, never batters or stretches it, but cuts a true round Hole, just in the point you first place it. You must have several Sizes of Drills, according as your work may require. The shape in Fig. 8. is enough to shew the Fashion of it; but it must be made of good Steel, and well temper'd. A the Point, AB the Shank, C the Drill-barrel: Where note, that the bigger the Drill-barrel is, the easier it runs about, but less swift.
And as you must be provided with several Drills, so you may sometimes require more than one Drill-bow, or at least, several Drill-strings; the strongest Strings for the largest Drills, and the smallest Strings for the smallest Drills: But you must remember, that whether you use a small or strong String, you keep your Drill-Bow straining your String pretty stiff, or else your String will not carry your Barrel briskly about. But your String and Bow, must both be accommodated to the Size of your Drill; and if both, or either, be too strong, they will break, or bend your Drill; or if too weak, they will not carry about the Bar⯑rel, as aforesaid.
[7]The Drill-Plate, or Breast-Plate, is only a piece of flat Iron, fixt upon a flat Board, which Iron hath an hole punched a little way into it, to set the blunt end of the Shank of the Drill in, when you drill a hole: Workmen instead of it, many times use the Hammer, into which they prick a hole a little way on the side of it, and so set the Hammer against their Breast.
Of the Screw-Plate, and its Taps.
THE Screw-Plate is a Plate of Steel well tem⯑per'd, with several holes in it, each less than other, and in those Holes are Threds grooved inwards; into which Grooves, fit the respective Taps that belong to them. The Taps that belong to them, are commonly made tapering towards the Point, as Fig. 7. shews. But these tapering Taps, will not serve for some sorts of works, as I shall shew in its proper place.
These are the most Essential Tools used in the Black-Smith's Trade; but some accidental work, may require some accidental Tools, which, as they may fall in, I shall give you an account of in convenient place.
Of Forging in general.
I Think it needless to tell you how to make your Fire, or blow it, because they are both but Labourers work; nor how little, or big, it need to be, for your own reason will, by the Size of your work, teach you that; only let me tell you the Phrase Smiths use for [make the Fire] is, Blow up the Fire, or sometimes, Blow up the Coals.
When it is burning with the Iron in it, you must, with the Slice, clap the Coals upon the out-side close together, to keep the heat in the body of the Fire; and as oft as you find the Fire begin to break out, clap them close again, and [8] with the Washer dipt in Water, wet the out-side of the Fire to damp the out-side, as well to save Coals, as to strike the force of the Fire in⯑to the in-side, that your work may heat the sooner. But you ought oft to draw your work a little way out of the Fire, to see how it takes its Heat, and quickly thrust it in again, if it be not hot enough: For each purpose your work is de⯑signed to, ought to have a proper Heat suitable to that purpose, as I shall shew you in the several Heats of Iron: For if it be too cold, it will not feel the weight of the Hammer (as Smiths say, when it will not batter under the Hammer) and if it be too hot, it will Red-sear, that is, break, or crack under the Hammer, while it is working between hot and cold.
Of the several Heats Smiths take of their Iron.
THere are several degrees of Heats Smiths take of their Iron, each according to the purpose of their work. As first, a Blood-red Heat. Secondly, a White Flame Heat. Thirdly, a Spark⯑ling, or Welding Heat.
The Blood-red Heat is used when Iron hath al⯑ready its form and size, as sometimes square Bars, and Iron Plates, &c. have, but may want a little Hammering to smooth it. Use then the Face of your Hand-hammer, and with light flat Blows, hammer down the irregular Risings into the Body of your Iron, till it be smooth enough for the File. And note▪ that it behoves a good Workman, to hammer his Work as true as he can; for one quarter of an hour spent at the Forge, may save him an hours work at the Vice.
The Flame, or White Heat, is used when your Iron hath not its Form or Size, but must be for⯑ged into both; and then you must take a piece of Iron thick enough, and with the Pen of your [9] Hammer, (or sometimes, according to the size of your work, use two or three pair of hands with Sledges to) batter it out; or, as Workmen call it, to draw it out, till it comes to its breadth, and pretty near its shape; and so by several Heats, if your work require them, frame it into Form and Size; then with the Face of your Hand-hammer, smooth your work from the Dents the Pen made, as you did with a Blood-red Heat.
A Sparkling, or Welding-heat, is only used when you double up your Iron (as Smiths call it) to make it thick enough for your purpose, and so weld, or work in the doubling into one another, and make it become one entire lump; or it is used when you join several Bars of Iron toge⯑ther to make them thick enough for your pur⯑pose, and work them into one Bar; or else it is used when you are to join, or weld two pie⯑ces of Iron together end to end, to make them long enough; but, in this case, you must be very quick at the Forge; for when your two ends are throughout of a good Heat, and that the inside of the Iron be almost ready to Run, as well as the outside, you must very hastily snatch them both out of the Fire together, and (after you have with the Edge of your Hammer scraped off such Scales or Dirt as may hinder their incorporating) with your utmost diligence clap your left hand-piece, upon your right hand-piece, and with all speed (lest you lose some part of your good Heat) fall to Hammering them together, and work them soundly into one another: and this, if your Bars be large, will require another, or somtimes two or three pair of Hands besides your own to do: but if it be not throughly welded at the first Heat, you must reiterate your Heats so oft, till they be throughly welded; then with a Flame-heat (as [10] before) shape it, and afterwards smooth it with a Blood-red Heat. To make your Iron come the sooner to a Welding-heat, you must now and then with your Hearth-staff stir up the Fire, and throw up those Cinders the Iron may have run upon; for they will never burn well, but spoil the rest of the Coals; and take a little white Sand be⯑tween your Finger and your Thumb, and throw upon the heating Iron, then with your Slice, quickly clap the outside of your Fire down a⯑gain; and with your Washer dipt in Water, damp the outside of the Fire to keep the Heat in.
But you must take special Care that your I⯑ron burn not in the Fire, that is, that it do not run or melt; for then your Iron will be so brit⯑tle, that it will not endure Forging without breaking, and so hard, that a File will not touch it.
Some Smiths use to strew a little white Sand upon the Face of the Anvil also, when they are to hammer upon a Welding-heat; for they say it makes the Iron weld, or incorporate the better.
If through Mistake, or ill management, your Iron be too thin, or too narrow towards one of the ends; then if you have substance enough (and yet not too long) you may up-set it, that is, take a Flame-heat, and set the heated end up⯑right upon the Anvil, and hammer upon the cold end, till the heated end be beat, or up-set, into the Body of your Work. But if it be a long piece of Work, and you fear its length may wrong the middle, you must hold it in your left hand, and lay it flat on the Anvil; but so as the heated end intended to be up-set, may lie a lit⯑tle over the further side of the Anvil, and then with your Hand-hammer in your right hand, beat upon the heated end of your work, minding that every stroak you take, you hold your work [11] stiff against the Face of the Hammer. Afterwards smooth it again with a Blood-red Heat.
If you are to Forge a Shoulder on one, or each side of your work, lay the Shank of your Iron at the place where your Shoulder must be on the edge of your Anvil ▪ that edge which is most con⯑venient to your hand) that if more Shoulders be to be made, turn them all successively, and ham⯑mer your Iron so, as that the Shank of the Iron that lies on the flat of the Anvil, feel as well the weight of your Blows, as the Shoulder at the edge of the Anvil ▪ for should you lay your blows on the edge of the Anvil only, it would instead of flatting the Shank to make the Shoul⯑der, cut your work through.
Your Work will sometimes require to have holes punched in it at the Forge, you must then make a Steel Punch to the size and shape of the hole you are to strike, and harden the point of it without tempering, because the heat of the Iron will soften it fast enough, and sometimes too fast, but then you must re-harden it; then taking a Blood-heat of your Iron, or if it be very large, almost a Flame-heat; lay it upon your Anvil, and with your left hand, place the point of the Punch where the hole must be, and with the Hand-hammer in your right hand punch the hole; or if your work be heavy, you may hold it in your left hand, and with your Punch fixed at the end of a Hoop-stick, or some such Wood, hold the stick in your right hand, and place the point of your Punch on the work where the hole must be, and let another Man strike, till your Punch come pretty near the bottom of your work; which when it does, the sides of your work round about the hole, will rise from the Face of the Anvil, and your Punch will print a bunching mark upon the hole of a Bolster, that is, [12] a thick Iron with a hole in it, and placing your Punch, as before, strike it through. But you must note, that as oft as you see your Punch heat, or change Colour, you take it out of the hole, and pop it into Water to re-harden it, or else it will batter in the hole you intend to strike, and not only spoil it self, but the Work too, by running aside in the Work. Having punched it through on the one side, turn the other side of your work, and with your Hammer set it flat and straight, and with a Blood-heat punch it through on the other side also; so shall that hole be fit for the File, or square bore, if the curiosity of your purposed Work cannot allow it to pass without filing. When your Work is Forged, do not quench it in water to cool it, but throw it down upon the Floor, or Hearth, to cool of it self; for the quenching it in water will harden it; as I shall shortly shew you, when I come to the Tempering of Steel.
Of Brazing and Soldering.
YOU may have occasion sometimes to Braze or Solder a piece of work; but it is used by Smiths only, when their work is so thin, or small, that it will not endure Welding. To do this, take small pieces of Brass, and lay them on the place that must be brazed, and strew a little Glass beaten to powder on it to make it run the sooner, and give it a Heat in the Forge, till (by sometimes drawing it a little way out of the Fire) you see the Brass run. But if your work be so small, or thin, that you may fear the Iron will run as soon as the Brass, and so you lose your work in the Fire, then you must make a Loam of three parts Clay, and one part Horse-dung, and after they are wrought and mingled very well together in your hands, wrap your work with the Brass, and a little beaten Glass upon [13] the place to be brazed close in the Loam, and laying it a while upon the Hearth of the Forge to dry, put the lump into the Fire, and blow the Bellows to it, till you perceive it have a full Heat, that is, till the Lump look like a well burnt Coal of Fire; then take it out of the Fire, and let it cool: Afterwards break it up, and take out your Work.
Thus much of Forging in general. It remains now, that you know what sorts of Iron are fittest for the several Uses, you may have occasion to ap⯑ply them.
Of several Sorts of Iron, and their proper Uses.
IT is not my purpose, in this place, to tell you how Iron is made, I shall defer that till I come to treat of Mettals, and their Refinings. Let it at present satisfie those that know it not, that Iron is, by a violent Fire, melted out of hard Stones, called Iron-Stones; of these Iron-Stones, many Countries have great plenty. But because it wastes such great quantities of Wood to draw the Iron from them, it will not, in many Places, quit cost to use them. In most parts of England, we have abundance of these Iron-Stones; but our English Iron, is generally a course sort of Iron, hard and brittle, fit for Fire-bars, and other such course Uses; unless it be about the Forrest of Dean, and some few places more, where the I⯑ron proves very good.
Swedish Iron is of all Sorts, the best we use in England. It is a fine tough sort of Iron, will best en⯑dure the Hammer, and is softest to file; and there⯑fore most coveted by Workmen, to work upon.
Spanish Iron, would be as good as Swedish Iron, were it not subject to Red-sear, (as Workmen phrase it) that is to crack betwixt hot and cold. Therefore when it falls under your hands, you [14] must tend it more earnestly at the Forge. But tho' it be good, tough, soft Iron, yet for many Uses, Workmen will refuse it, because it is so ill, and un-evenly wrought in the Bars, that it costs them a great deal of labour to smooth it; but it is good for all great works that require welding, as the bodies of Anvils, Sledges, large Bell-clappers, large Pestles for Mortars, & all thick strong Bars, &c. But it is particularly chosen by Anchor-Smiths, because it abides the Heat better than other Iron, and when it is well wrought, is toughest.
There is some Iron comes from Holland (tho' in no great quantity) but is made in Germany. This Iron is called Dort Squares, only because it comes to us from thence, and is wrought into square Bars three quarters of an Inch square. It is a bad, course Iron, and only fit for slight Uses, as Window-Bars, Brewers-Bars, Fire-Bars, &c.
There is another sort of Iron used for making of Wyer, which of all Sorts is the softest and toughest: But this Sort is not peculiar to any Country, but is indifferently made where any Iron is made, though of the worst sort; for it is the first Iron that runs from the Stone when it is melting, and is only preserved or the ma⯑king of Wyer.
By what hath been said, you may see that the softest and toughest Iron is the best: Therefore when you chuse Iron, chuse such as bows oftenest before it break, which is an Argument of tough⯑ness; and see it break sound within, be grey of Colour like broken Lead, and free from such glistering Specks you see in broken Antimony, no flaws or divisions in it; for these are Argu⯑ments that it is [...]ound, and well wrought at the Mill.
Of Filing in General.
[15]THE several sorts of Files that are in com⯑mon use are the Square, the Flat, the three Square, the half Round, the Round, the Thin File, &c. All these shapes you must have of several Si⯑zes, and of several Cuts. You must have them of several sizes, as well because you may have seve⯑ral sizes of work, as for that it sometimes falls out that one piece of work may have many parts in it joined and fitted to one another, some of them great, and others small; And you must have them of several Cuts, because the Rough-tooth'd File cuts faster than the Bastard-tooth'd File, the Fine-tooth'd File faster than the Smooth-tooth'd File.
The Rough or Course-tooth'd File (which if it be large, is called a Rubber) is to take off the un⯑evenness of your work which the Hammer made in the Forging; the Bastard-tooth'd file is to take out of your work, the deep cuts, or file-strokes, the Rough-file made; the Fine-tooth'd file is to take out the cuts, or file-strokes, the Bastard-file made; and the Smooth-file is to take out those cuts, or file-strokes, that the Fine file made.
Thus you see how the Files of several Cuts suc⯑ceed one another, till your Work is so smooth as it can be filed. You may make it yet smoother with Emerick, Tripoli, &c. But of that in its pro⯑per place, because it suits not with this Section of Filing.
You must take care when you use the Rough File, that you go very lightly over those dents the Hammer made in your work, unless your work be forged somewhat of the strongest, for the dents being irregularities in your work, if you should file away as much in them, as you do off the Eminencies or Risings, your work (whether it be straight or circular) would be as irregular, as it was before you filed it: And [16] when you file upon the Prominent, or rising Parts of your Work, with your course cut File, you must also take care that you file them not more away than you need, for you may easily be deceived; because the course File cuts deep, and makes deep scratches in the Work; and be⯑fore you can take out those deep scratches with your finer cut Files, those places where the Ri⯑sings were when your work was forged, may become dents to your Hammer dents; therefore file not those Risings quite so low, as the dents the Hammer made, but only so low as that the scratches the Rough-file makes may lie as low, or deep in your work, as your Hammer dents do; for then, when you come with your smoother Cut Files, after your Rough-file, the scratches of your Rough-file, and your Hammer-strokes, or dents, may both come out together. But to do this with greater certainty, hold your File so, that you may keep so much of the length of your File as you can to rub, range, (or, as near range as you can) upon the length of your work; for so shall the File enter upon the se⯑cond Rising on your work, before it goes off the first, and will slip over, and not touch the dent or hollow between the two Risings, till your Risings are brought into a straight line with your hollow dent. But of this more shall be said when I come to the Practice of Filing▪ upon several particular sorts of work.
If it be a square Bar, (or such like) you are to file upon, all its Angles, or Edges, must be left very sharp and straight. Therefore your Vice being well set up, according to foregoing Di⯑rections, you must in your filing athwart over the Chaps of the Vice, be sure to carry both your hands you hold the file in, truly Horizontal, or flat over the Work; for should you let either of [17] your hands mount, the other would dip, and the edge of that Square it dips upon would be taken off; and should you let your hand move never so little circularly, both the Edges you file upon would be taken off, and the Middle of your intended Flat would be left with a Rising on it. But this Hand-craft, you must attain to by Practice; for it is the great Curio⯑sity in Filing.
If it be a round Piece, or Rod of Iron, you are to file upon, what you were forbid upon Square Work, you must perform on the Round for you must dip your Handle-hand, and mount your end-hand a little, and laying pritting near the end of your File to the Work, file circu⯑larly upon the Work, by mounting your Handle-hand by degrees, and dipping your End-hand, in such manner, as when the Middle of your File comes about the top of your Work, your File may be flat upon it, and as you continue your stroaks forwards, still keep your hands moving circularly till you have finished your full Stroak, that is, a Stroak the whole length of the File. By this manner of Circular filing, you keep your Piece, or Rod round; but should you file flat upon the top of your work, so many times as you shall remove, or turn your work in the Vice, so many Flats, or Squares, you would have in your work; which is contrary to your purpose.
When you thrust your File forwards, lean hea⯑vy upon it, because the Teeth of the File are made to cut forwards; but when you draw your File back, to recover another thrust, lift, or bear the File lightly just above the work; for it cuts not coming back.
Thus much of FILING in General.
Of the making of Hinges, Locks, Keys, Screws, and Nuts, Small and Great.
[18]Of Hinges.
IN Fig. 1. A the Tail, B the Cross, CDDDDE the Joint, DDDD the Pin-hole. When the Joint at C on the Tail, is pind in the Joint at E in the Cross, the whole Hinge is called a Cross-Garnet.
[figure]
When you cut out an Hinge, you must leave on the length of the Plate AB in this Figure, Plate enough to lap over for the Joints, I mean, to Turn, or Double about a round Pin, so big as you intend the Pin of your Hinge shall be, and also Plate enough to Weld upon the inside of the Hinge below the Pin-hole of the Joint, that the Joint may be strong.
[figure]
Afterwards with a Punch of hardned Steel (as you were taught Page 11.12.) Punch the Nail-holes in the Plate; or if your Plate be very thin, you may punch them with a (c) cold Punch. After all, smooth it as well as you can with your Hand-hammer; take a Blood-red-heat, if your work require it, if not, smooth it cold; so will the Tail-piece be fit for the File. Double, and Weld the Cross-piece, as you did the Tail-piece.
Having forg'd your Hinge fit for the File, you must proceed to make the Joint, by cutting a Notch in the Middle of the Pin-hole between DD in Plate 2. on the Cross, as at E, and you must cut down the Ends of the Pin-hole on the [21] Tail-piece, as at DD, till the Joint at C fit ex⯑actly into the Notch in the Cross, and that when the Pin is put into the Pin-hole DD on the Cross, the Pin-hole in the Tail-piece may also receive the Pin; then by holding the Tail-piece in one Hand, and the Cross in the other, double the Tail and Cross towards one another, to try if they move evenly and smoothly without shaking on the Pin; which if they do, the Joint is made; if they do not, you must examine where the Fault is, and taking the Pin out, mend the Fault in the Joint.
Then File down all the Irregularities the Cold-Chissel made on the Edges of your Work, and (if the Curiosity of Work require it) file also the outer Flat of your Work. But tho' Smiths that make Quantities of Hinges, do brighten them, (as they call it) yet they seldom file them, but Grinde them on a Grindstone till they become bright, &c.
Having finished the Joint, put the Pin in again; but take care it be a little longer than the Depth of the Joint, because you must batter the Ends of the Pin over the outer Edges of the Pin-hole, that the Pin may not drop out when either Edge of the Cross is turned upwards.
The chiefest Curiosity in the making these, and, indeed, all other Hinges is, 1. That the Pin-hole be exactly round, and not too wide for the Pin. 2. That the Joints are let exactly into one another, that they have no play between them, lest they shake upwards or downwards, nor yet are forced too hard into one another, lest when they are nailed on the Door, the Joint be in Danger of Breaking. 3. That the Cross, and the Tail lie on the Under-side exactly flat, for should they warp out of flat when they are nail⯑ed on, the Nails would draw the Joint a-wry, and not only make it move hard, and unevenly, but by oft Opening and Shutting break the Joint. 4. If your Work be intended to be curious, the [22] true Square-filing the Upper-side, as you were taught Page 15, 16, 17. is a great Ornament.
(a) Smiths call all Chissels they use upon cold Iron, Cold-Chissels.
(b) The Stake is a small Anvil, which either stands upon a broad Iron Foot, or Basis, on the Work-Bench, to remove as Occasion offers; or else it hath a strong Iron Spike at the Bot⯑tom, which Iron Spike is let into some certain Place of the Work-Bench not to be removed. Its Office is to set small cold Work straight upon, or to Cut or Punch upon with the Cold-Chissel, or Cold-Punch.
(c) Smiths call all Punches they use upon cold Iron, Cold-Punches.
If the Hinge you are to make be large, and Plate-Iron is not strong enough for it, you must Forge it out of Flat Bar-Iron, as you were taught from Page 7 to Page 12.
The manner of working Duftails, Fig. 5. and Side-hinges, Fig. 6. &c. is (the shape considered) in all respects the same I have here shewed you in Cross-Garnets; but in these (or others) you may (if your Work require Curiosity) instead of Doubling for the Joint, Forge the Round for the Joint of full Iron, and afterwards Drill a Hole through it, for the Pin-hole; and by curious Fi⯑ling, work them so true into one another, that both sides of the Hinge shall seem but one Piece; as I shall shew more at large, when I come to the making of Compasses, and other Joints for Mathematical Instruments.
Of Locks and Keys.
AS there are Locks for several Purposes, as Street-door Locks, called Stock-Locks; Cham⯑ber-door Locks, called Spring-Locks; Cupboard-Locks, Chest-Locks, Trunk-Locks, Pad-Locks, &c. So are there several Inventions in Locks, I mean, in [23] the Making and Contriving their Wards, or Guards. But the Contrivances being almost in⯑numerable, according to the various Fancies of Men, shall be referred to another Time to dis⯑course; and I shall now shew you the Working of a Spring-Lock, which when you know how to do, your Fancy may play with Inventions, as you best like.
In Fig. 2. AAAA the Main-plate, BC the Key-hole. EDE the Top-hook, EE Cross-wards, F the Bolt, G the Bolt-Toe, or Bolt-Nab. H the Draw-back Spring, I the Tumbler, K the Pin of the Tumbler, LL the Staples.
In Fig. 3. AAAA the Cover-Plate, B the Pin, BCD the Main-ward, DD Cross-wards, E the Step-ward or Dap-ward.
In Fig. 4. A the Pin-hole, B the Step, or Dap-ward, C the Hook-ward, D the Middle, or Main Cross-ward, EE the Cross-ward, F the Main-ward, GG Cross-ward, H the Shank, I the Pot, or Bread, K the Bow-ward, L the Bow, BCDEEFGG the Bit.
First, Cut out of an Iron Plate with a Cold-Chissel, the Size and Shape of the Main-Plate, as you were taught to cut the Cross and Tail-piece of the Cross-Garnet; then consider what Depth you intend the Bit of the Key shall have, and set that Depth off on the Main-Plate, by leaving about half an Inch of Plate between the Bottom of the Key-hole, and the Lower Edge of the Main-Plate, as at C (or more or less, according to the Size of the Lock.) Then measure with a Pair of Composses between the Bottom of the Bit, and the Centre of your Key (or your intended Key) and set that di⯑stance off from C to B, near the Middle between the two Ends of the Main-Plate, and with the (a) Prick-punch, make there a Mark to set one Foot of your Compasses in, then opening your Compasses to the Middle of the Bit of your intended Key, as [24] to D, describe the Arch EDE for the true Place the Top-hoop must stand on.
Then cut one other Piece of Plate as AAAA in Fig. 3. for a Cover-plate, with two Pieces one on each side, long enough to make Studs of to turn downwards, and then outward again as FF, GG, that the Cover-plate may stand off the Main-plate, the Breadth of the Bit of the Key; and at the two End of these Studs Punch holes, as GG, to Rivet the Cover-plate into the Main-plate. In the Middle of this Plate make the Centre, as at B, then open your Compasses to three Quarters the Length of the Bit, and half the Diameter of the Shank of the Key, and placing one Foot in the Point B, describe with the other Foot the Arch DCD for the true Place of the Main-ward, then set your Compasses to a little more than half the Diameter of the Shank, and place one Foot (as before) in the Centre B, and with the other Foot describe the small Arch E, for the true Place the Step-ward, or (as some call it) the Dap-ward must stand: So have you the true Places of the Wards, for an ordinary Spring-Lock; you may (if the Depth of your Bit will bear it) put more Wards in your Plates. But you must note, that the more Wards you put in, the weaker you make your Key; because that to every Ward on the Plates, you must make a Slit, or Ward in the Bit of the Key; and the more Wards you make, the weaker the Iron of the Bit will be; and then if the Bolt shoot not easily backwards, or forwards, the Bit may be in Danger of Breaking.
Having marked on your Plates the Places of all your Wards, you must take thin Plate, and with Hammering and Filing make them both (b) Hammer-hard, and of equal Thickness all the way. Then file one Edge very straight, by laying a straight Ruler just within the Edge of it, and draw⯑ing, or racing with a Point of hardned Steel, a bright Line by the side of the Ruler; File away [25] the Edge of the Plate to that Line, then draw (as before) another straight Line Parallel to the first straight Line, or which is all one, Parallel to the filed Edge, just of the Breadth you intend the Wards shall be, and file as before, only, you must leave two, or sometimes three Studs upon this Plate, one near each End, and the other in the Middle, to Rivet into the Main-plate, to keep the Ward fixt in its Place. Therefore you must take care when you elect this thin Piece of Plate, that it be broad enough for the Ward, and these Studs too. Then laying the Plate a-thwart the Pike of the Bickern, hold your Hand even with the Face of the Bickern, and hammer this Plate down somewhat by the side of the Pike, and by Degrees you may (with care taken) bring it unto a circular Form, just of the Size of that Circle you described on the Main-plate; which when you have done, you must apply this Ward to the Circle you described on the Main-plate; setting it in the Position you intend it shall be fixed, and marking with a Steel Point where the Studs stand upon that Circle, in those marks Punch holes to Rivet the Studs to. Work so by all the other Wards.
If you have a Pin to the Lock, Punch a Hole through the Centre on the Cover-plate, somewhat smaller than the Wyre you are to make your Pin of, because you may then file one End of the Pin away to a Shank, which must fit the smaller Hole on the Plate, and the whole Thickness of the Pin will be a Sholder, which will keep the Pin steddy in the Centre-hole of the Plate, when the Pin is rivetted into the Plate. But because there is some Skill to be used in Rivetting, I shall, before I proceed any farther, teach you
The manner of Rivetting.
[26]RIvetting is to batter the Edges of a Shank o⯑ver a Plate, or other Iron, the Shank is let into, so as the Plate, or other Iron, may be clinched close, and fixed between the Battering at the End of the Shank and the Sholder. So that
When you Rivet a Pin into a Hole, your Pin must have a Sholder to it thicker than the Hole is wide, that the Sholder slip not through the Hole, as well as the Shank; but the Shank of the Pin must be exactly of the Size of the Hole the Shank must be Rivetted into, and somewhat longer than the Plate is thick; file the End of the Shank flat, so shall the Edges of the End, the ea⯑silier batter over the Plate; then put your Shank into the Hole, wherein it is to be Rivetted, but be sure you force the Shank close up to the Sholder; then turn the Top of this Sholder down⯑wards (Plate and all) upon your Stake, but lay it so, as that the Sholder lie solid, and the Shank, at the same time, stand directly upright, and with your left Hand, keep your Work bearing hard upon the Flat, or Face of the Stake. Then holding your Hammer in your Right-hand, hold the Edge of the Face of it Dripping a-slope from the Right-hand outwards, and lay pretty light Blows upon the Edge of the End of the Shank, turning with your Left-hand your Work round to the Face of the Hammer, till you have battered the Edges of the Shank quite round about; but this is seldom done, with once turning your Work about; therefore you may thus work it round again and again, till you find it is pretty well Rivetted; then lay heavier Blows upon it, sometimes with the Face, sometimes with the Pen of the Hammer, till the End of the Shank is bat⯑tered effectually over the Plate.
One main Consideration in Rivetting is, that the Pin you rivet in, stand upright to the Plate, [27] or other Iron you rivet it upon; for if it do not stand upright, you will be forced to set it up⯑right, after it is rivetted, either in the Vice, or with your Plyers, or with your Hammer, and that may, if your Plate be thin, bow it, or if it be thick, break the Shank, or else the Sholder of your Rivet, and so you lose your Labour, and some⯑times spoil your Work.
Another Consideration is, that when you rivet a Pin to any Plate, and you fear it may after⯑wards twist about by some force that may be offered it, you must, to provide against this Danger, file the Shank you intend to Rivet, ei⯑ther Square, or Triangular, and make the Hole in the Plate you rivet it into, of the same Size and Form, and then rivet in the Shank, as be⯑fore. There are two ways to make your Hole, Square or Triangular, one is by filing it into these Forms, when it is first Punched round; the other by making a Punch of Steel, of the Size and Shape of the Shank you are to rivet, and punching that Punch into the Plate, make the same Form.
Now to return where I left off. The Pins and Shanks of these Wards must be made of a long Square Form, because, (the Plates of the Wards being thin) should you make them no broader than the Plate is thick, the Studs, or Shanks would be too weak to hold the Wards, therefore you must make the Rivetting-shank three or four times, or sometimes more, as broad as the Plate is thick, and then rivet them in, as you were taught just now.
Then place the Cover-plate upon the Main-plate, so as the Centre of the Cover-plate, may stand directly over and against the Centre of the Main-plate, and make marks through the Hole GG, of the Studs of the Cover-Plate upon the Main-plate, and on those Marks Punch holes, and fit two Pins into them, to fasten the Cover-plate on to [28] the Main-plate, but you must not yet rivet them down, till the Key-hole be made, because this Cover-plate would then stop the Progress of the File through the Main-plate, when you file the Key-hole. When you have placed the Cover-plate upon the Main-plate, and fitted it on with Pins, so, as you may take it off, and put it on again, as your Work may require, you must Punch the Key-hole, or rather drill two Holes close by one another, if the Key-hole falls near the Wards, be⯑cause Punching may be apt to set the Wards out of Form, and with small Files, file the two Holes into one another, to make the Hole big enough to come at it with bigger Files, and then file your Key-hole to your intended Size and Shape.
The Key-hole being finished, forge your Key, as you were taught, Page 7. and if your Key is to have a Pin-hole, drill the Hole in the Middle of the End of the Shank, then file the Wards, or Slits in the Bit with thin Files; yet sometimes Smiths Punch, or cut them with a Cold-Chissel, at the same Distances from the Middle of the Pin-hole in the End of the Shank (which is the same Centre, which was made before, in the Main-plate on the Cover-plate) which you placed the Wards at, from the Centre of the Main and Cover-plate. But before you file these Wards too deep into the Bit of the Key, make Trials, by putting the Bit into the Key-hole, whether the Wards in the Bit, will agree with the Wards on the Plates, which if they do, you may boldly cut them to the Depth of the Wards on the Plate; if not, you must alter your Course till they do; but you must take great Care in Cutting the Wards down straight, and square to the Sides of the Bit; for if they be not cut down straight, the Wards on the Plates, will not fall in with the Wards in the Bit of the Key; and if they be not Square to the Sides of the Bit, the Bit will not only be weaker than it need be, but it will [29] shew unhandsomely, and like a Botch to the Eye.
The Cross and Hock-wards is made, or, at least, entred at the Forge, when the Iron hath a Blood, or almost a Flame Heat, yet sometimes Smiths do it on cold Iron, with a thin Chissel, as you was taught Page 11.12. But you must take care that your Chissel be neither too thick, or too broad, for this Punching of Wards is only to give the thin Files Entrance to the Work; which Entrance when you have, you may easily file your Cross, or Hook-wards, wider or deeper, as your Work may require; but if your Chissel be too broad, or too thick, it will make the Wards in the Bit too long, or too wide, and then (as I said before) the Bit of your Key will prove weaker than it needs to be.
Having made the Wards on the Plate, and in the Bit of the Key, you must Forge the Bolt of a considerable Substance, Thick and Square at the End that shoots into the Staple in the Frame of the Door, that it may be strong enough to guard the whole Door; but the rest of the Bolt that lies between the two Staples on the Main-plate, may be made very thin inwards, that is, the Side that lies towards the Main-plate, which because it can⯑not be seen when the Bolt is fixed upon the Plate, I have made a Figure of it, and turned the Inside to View, as in Fig. 4. where you may see, that the End A, hath a considerable Substance of Iron to guard the whole Door, as aforesaid, and B is a Square Stud, which doth as well keep the Outside flat of the Bolt on the Range, as serve for a Stud for the Spring H in Fig. 2. to press hard against, and shoot the Bolt forwards: This Bolt must be wrought straight on all its Sides, except the Topside, which must be wrought straight only as far as the Sholder G, called the Toe, or Nab of the Bolt, which rises, as you see in the Figure, considerably high, above the Straight on the Top of the Bolt; The Office of this Nab, [30] is to receive the Bottom of the Bit of the Key, when in turning it about, it shoots the Bolt back⯑wards or forwards.
Having forged and filed the Bolt, you must fit the Hollow-side of it towards the Main-plate, at that Distance from the Key-hole, that when the Key is put into the Key-hole, and turned towards the Bolt, the Bottom of the Bit may fall almost to the Bottom of the Nab, and shoot the Bolt back so much, as it needs to enter the Staple in the Door-frame. And having found this true Place for the Bolt, you must with square Staples, just fit to contain the Bolt with an easie Play, fasten these Staples, by Rivetting them with the Bolt within them, one near the Bolt end, the other near the Nab end, as at LL to the Main-plate.
Then Punch a pretty wide Hole in the Main-plate, as at K, to receive a strong Pin, and file a Sholder to the Shank of the Pin that goes into the Plate. This Pin is called the Pin of the Tumbler; the Tumbler is marked I, which is a long Piece of Iron, with a round Hole at the Top to fit the Pin of the Tumbler into, that it may move upon it, as on a Joint, and it hath an Hook returning at the Lower End of it, to fall into the Breech of the Bolt, and by the Spring H forces the Bolt forwards, when it is shot back with the Key. This Spring is made of Steel, and afterwards temper'd (as I shall shew you in proper Place.) It is fixed at the Bottom of the Main-plate, by two small Shanks proceeding from that Edge of the Spring that lies against the Main-plate, as at OO: These Shanks are to be rivetted (as you were taught even now) on the other Side of the Main-plate.
All things being thus fitted, punch an Hole on each Corner of the Main-plate for Nails to enter, that must nail the Lock to the Door. Or if you intend to screw your Lock on the Door, you must make wide Holes, big enough to receive the [31] Shank of the Screw. Last of all, rivet down your Cover-plate to the Main-plate, and file your Key, and polish it too, if you will; so shall the Lock and Key be finished.
(a) A Prick-punch, is a Piece of temper'd Steel, with a round Point at one End, to prick a round Mark in cold Iron.
(b) Hammer-hard, is when you harden Iron, or Steel, with much hammering on it.
The making of Screws and Nuts.
THe Shank of the Screw for Doors, and many other Purposes, must be forged square near the Head, because it must be let into a Square-hole, that it may not twist about when the Nut is turned about hard upon the Screw-pin. Therefore take a Square-bar, or Rod of Iron, as near the Size of the Head of the Screw-pin as you can, and taking a Flame-heat of it, lay so much of this Bar as you intend for the Length of the Shank, with one Square-side flat, upon the Hither-side of the Anvil, and hammer it down to your intended Thickness: But have a care you do not strike your Iron on this Side the Edge of the Anvil, lest you cut the Iron, as I told you Page 11. Thus, at once, you will have two Sides of your Shank forged; the Under-side made by the Anvil, and the Upper-side beaten flat with the Hammer: The Head will be in the main Rod of Iron; then if your Iron grows cold, give it another Heat, and lay one of the unwrought Sides upon the Hither-side of the Anvil, just to the Head, and hammer that down, as before, so shall the two other Square-sides be made; then hammer down the Corners of so much of this Shank, as you in⯑tend for the Screw-pin, and round it, as near as you can, with the Hammer; set then the Chissel to the Thickness you intend the Head shall have, and strike it about half through, then turn the Sides successively, and cut each Side also half through, till it be quite cut off. If the Sholder be not square enough, hold it in your Square-nos'd [32] Tongs, and take another Heat, and with speed (lest your Work cool) screw the Shank into the Vice, so as the Sholder may fall flat upon the Chaps of the Vice; then hammer upon the Head, and square the Sholder on two Sides, do the like for squaring the other two Sides. This was, in part, taught you before, in Page 11. but because the cutting this Iron Rod, or Bar, just above the Sholder makes the Head, and for that I did not mention it there, I thought fit (since the Purpose required it) to do it here: The Forging of the Nuts are taught before, Page 11.12.
Having forged and filed your Shank square, and the Head either Square or Round, as you intend it shall be, file also the Screw-pin, from the Ri⯑sings and dents left at the Forge; and file it a little Tapering towards the End, that it may enter the Screw-plate; the Rule how much it must be Ta⯑pering is this, consider how deep the Inner Groo⯑ves of the Screw-plate lie in the outer Threds, and file the End of the Screw-pin so much smaller than the rest of the Screw-pin, for the outer Threds of the Screw-plate must make the Grooves on the Screw-pin, and the Grooves in the Screw-plate, will make the Threds on the Screw-pin. Having fitted your self with a Hole in your Screw-plate (that is, such a Hole whose Diameter of the hollow Groo⯑ves, shall be equal to the Diameter of the Screw-pin, but not such a Hole, whose Diameter of the outer Threds, shall be equal to the Diameter of the Screw-pin, for then the Screw-plate will indeed turn about the Screw-pin, but not cut any Grooves, or Threds in it) screw the Shank with the Head downwards in the Vice, so as that the Screw-pin may stand directly upright, and take the Handle of the Screw-plate in your Right-hand, and lay that Hole flat upon the Screw-pin, and press it very hard down over it, and turn the Screw-plate evenly about with its Handle towards you, from the Right towards the Left-hand, so shall the outer [33] Threds of the Screw-plate cut Grooves into the Screw-pin, and the substance of the Iron on the Screw-pin, will fill up the Grooves of the Screw-plate, and be a Thred upon the Screw-pin. But take this for Caution, that, as I told you, you must not make your Screw-pin too small, because the Screw-plate will not cut it, so if you make it too big (if it do en⯑ter the Screw-plate where it is Taper) it will en⯑danger the breaking it, or, if it do not break it, yet the Screw-plate will, after it gets a little below the Tapering, go no farther, but work and wear off the Thred it made about the Tapering.
To fit the Pin therefore to a true size, I, in my Practise, use to try into what hole of the Screw-plate, the Tap or place of the Tap, (if it be a ta⯑pering Tap,) I make the Nut with, will just slide through; (Threads and all;) (which generally in most Screw-plates is the hole next above that to be used) for then turning my Pin about in that hole, if the Pin be irregularly filed, or but a little too big on any part of it, the Threds of that Hole will cut small marks upon the Pin, on the irregular places, or where it is too big; so that afterwards filing those Marks just off, I do at once file my Pin truly round, and small enough to fit the H [...]le I make my Screw-pin with.
As the Hole of the Screw-plate must be fitted to the Screw-pin, so must the Screw-tap that makes the Screw in the Nut, be fitted to to the round hole of the Nut; but that Tap must be of the same size of your Screw-pin too, which you may try by the same hole of the Screw-plate you made the Scr [...]w-pin with. Screw the Nut in the Vice directly flat, that the hole may stand upright, and put the Screw-tap upright in the hole; then if your Screw-tap have an handle, turn it by the handle hard round in the Hole, so will the Screw-tap work it self into the Hole, and make Grooves in it to fit the Threds of [34] the Screw-pin. But if the Screw-tap have no han⯑dle, then it hath its upper end filed to a long square, to fit into an hollow square, made near the handle of the Screw-plate; but that long square hole, o⯑ver the long square on the top of the Tap, and then by turning about the Screw-plate, you will al⯑so turn about the Tap in the hole ▪ and make Grooves and Threds in the Nut.
But though small Screws are made with Screw-plates, yet great Screws, s [...]ch as are for Vices, Hot-Pr [...]sses, Printing-Presse, &c. are not made with Screw-plates, [...] must [...] out of the main Iron, with heavy blow [...] [...] a Cold-Chissel. The man⯑ner of making them, is as follows.
The Rules and manner of Cutting Worms upon great Screws.
THE Threds of Screws, when they are bigger than can be made in Screw-plates, are call'd Worms. They consist in length, breadth and depth; the length of a Worm begins at the one end of the Spindle, and ends at the other; the breadth of the Worm, is contain'd between any two Grooves on the Spindle, viz. The upper and un⯑der Groove of the Worm, in every part of the Spindle; the depth of the Worm, is cut into the Diameter of the Spindle, viz. The depth, between the outside of the Worm, and the bottom of the Groove.
The depth ought to be about the one seventh part of the Diameter, on each side the Spindle:
You ought to make the Groove wider than the Worm is broad, because the Worm being cut out of the same intire piece with the Spindle, will be as strong as the Worm in the Nut, tho' the Worm [...] be smaller; for you cannot come [...] the Nut, to cut it with Fl [...]es, as you [...], and therefore you must either [35] Turn up a Rod of Iron, to twist round about the Grooves on the Spindle, and then take it off, and Braze it into the Nut, or else you must Cast a Nut of Brass upon the Spindle, which will neither way be so strong as the Worm cut out of the whole Iron, by so much as Brass is a weaker Mettal than Iron, and therefore it is that you ought to allow the Worm in the Nut, a greater breadth than the Worm on the Spindle, that the strength of both may, as near as you can, be equaliz'd; for both being put to equal force, ought to have equal strength. The Worm may very well be the one seventh part smaller than the Groove is wide, as aforesaid.
Having consider'd what breadth the Worm on the Spindle shall have, take a small thin Plate of Brass, or Iron, and file a square notch at the end of it, just so wide, and so deep, as your Worm is to be broad and deep, and file the sides of the Plate that this notch stands between, just to the width of the Groove. This Plate, must be a Gage to file your Worm and Groove to equal breadth by; then draw a straight and upright Line the whole length of the Spindle; divide from this line the Circumference of the whole Spindle into eight equal Parts, and through those Divisions, draw seven Lines more parallel to the first Line; then open your Com⯑passes just to the breadth of one Worm, and one Groove, and set off that distance [...]s oft as you can, from the one end of the Spindle to the other, (but I should first have told you, that the end of your Spindle must be square to the outside) and with a Prick-Punch, make a mark to every setting off on that line: Do the like to all the other straight upright Lines. Note, that you may chuse one of these eight upright Lines for the first, and make the next towards your left Hand, the second (but then the first must stand towards you) and the [36] next that, the third, and so on. And the top mark of every one of these upright straight Lines, shall be call'd the first Mark, the next un⯑der that the second Mark, the third, the third Mark, and so downwards in Order and Num⯑ber.
Having marked one of these eight Lines at the top of the Spindle, to begin the winding of the Worm at, with a Black-lead Pencil, draw a line from that Mark to the second Mark, on the next upright Line towards the left hand, from thence continue drawing on with your Pencil to the third Mark, on the third upright Line, draw on still to the fourth Mark, on the fourth upright Line, and so onwards, till you have drawn over the eight straight Lines, which when you have done, you must still continue on, drawing downwards to each lower Mark on each successive upright Line, till you have drawn your Worm from end to end: Then examine, as well as you can, by your Eye, whether the Worm you have carried on from Mark to Mark with the Black-led Pencil, do not break into Angles, which if it do any where, you must mend it in that place: Then with the edge of an half-round File, file a small Line in the Black-lead Line, and be sure that the Line you are filing, run exactly through all the Marks that the Black-lead Pencil should have run through (if it did not, for want of good gui⯑dance of the Hand.) This small Line is only for a guide to cut the Groove down by; for the making of a Screw is, indeed nothing else, but the cut⯑ting the Groove down, for then the Worm remains: But you must not file in this small line, but leave it as a guide to lie on the middle of the Worm (as I said before): Therefore to cut down the Groove, take a Cold-Chissel, somewhat thinner than you intend the Groove shall be wide, viz. about [37] the thickness of the breadth of the Worm, and, with heavy blows, cut out the Groove pretty near. The reason why you should not offer to cut the Grooves to their full wedth at the first, is, because your Hand may carry the Cold-Chissel somewhat awry, and should your Cold-Chissel be as thick as the Groove is wide, you could not smooth the Ir⯑regularities out, without making the Worm nar⯑rower than you intended it: Then with a Flat-file open and smooth the Groove, filing in the middle between the two next fine Lines cut by the half-round File, till you have wrought the Spindle from end to end, so shall the Worm remain. But you must not expect, that though the Groove be cut, it is therefore finished, for now you must begin to use the thin Plate-Gage, and try first, whether the Worm have equal breadth all the way. Secondly, whether the Grove have equal breadth all the way. And Thirdly, whether the Groove have equal depth all the way; and where ever you find the Worm too broad, you must file it thinner, and where the Groove is not deep enough, file it deep⯑er; therefore in cutting down the Groove you may observe, that if, at first, you file the Worm never so little too narrow or the Groove never so little too deep, you shall have all the rest of the Worm or Groove to file over again; because the whole Worm must be brought to the breadth of the smallest part of it, and the whole Groove to the depth of the deepest place all the way, espe⯑cially if the Nut be to be Cast in Brass upon the Spindle; because the Mettal running close to the Spindle will bind on that place, and not come off it; but if the Nut be not to be Cast in Brass, but only hath a Worm brazed into it, this niceness is not so absolutely necessary, because that Worm is first Turned up, and bowed into the Grooves of the Spindle, and you may try that before it is [38] Braz'd in the Nut, and if it go not well about, you may mend, or botch it, either by Hammering or Filing, or both.
The manner of Casting the Nut upon the Spin⯑dle, I shall shew when I come to the Casting of Met⯑tals; and the manner of Brazing hath been Taught already. Num. I. fol. 12, 13.
If your Spindle is to have three or four Worms winding about it, as Coining-Presses and Printing-Presses have, that they may not wear out too fast, you must divide the Circumference into three or four equal Parts, and having straight upright Lines, drawn as before, begin a Worm at each of those three, or four Divisions, on the Circumfe⯑rence, and considering the breadth of your Worm and width of your Groove, measure that width as oft as you can on all the upright Lines, and ma⯑king Marks on those at each Setting off, draw as before, a Line from the end of the Spindle, on the first upright Line to the Mark below it, which is the second Mark on the second upright Line, from thence to the third Mark, on the third up⯑right Line, and so on to the other end of the Spindle. Having drawn the first Worm, work the other Worm as this.
Thus much may at present suffice for great Screws.
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
[39]Viz. The making of Jacks and Bullet-Molds, the twisting of Iron, and Case-hardning it, with the use of some Tools not treated of be⯑fore: Also of the several sorts of Steel, the manner of Softning, Hardning and Tem⯑pering them.
Of Jacks.
FIG. 1. is call'd a Worm-Jack. AB the Fore⯑side, AC the Back-side, AA the Top-piece, BC the Bottom-piece, altogether the Jack-frame, EEK the Main-Spindle, NON the Main-Wheel and Barrel, O the Barrel, D the Wind-up-piece, fastned into the Barrel, FF the Worm-wheel Spindle, G the Worm-wheel, Q the Worm-Nut, H the Worm, R the Stud of the Worm-Spindle, D the Worm-Loop, L the Wind-up-piece, M the Winch or Winder or Handle, the Iron part is the Winder, the Wood the Handle, S the Eye of the Winder, II the Fly, T the Socket of the Fly, V, the Struck-Wheel, X the Stayes or Back fastnings.
First you are to Forge the Jack-frame, and on the left side of the Foreside, a Shank for the Stud of the Worm-spindle, as you are taught Numb. I. fol. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. and then file it as you were taught Numb. I. fol. 14, 15, 16.
[40]The top and bottom Pieces are let into square holes at the ends of the Fore and Backside. But you must Forge the top and bottom Pieces with two small Squares towards the ends of them, and two round ends for Screw-pins, beyond those squares. The small squares are to be fitted into square holes into the Fore and Backsides, and the round Screw-pins are to make Screws of, to which a square Nut is to be fitted to draw the top and bottom Pieces close and right up to the insides of the Fore and Backsides. The manner of Filing of these Ends you were, in part, taught Numb. II. fol. 15, 16. and Numb. I. fol. 29. but another way is by try⯑ing your Work with an Instrument, call'd by Workmen, a Square, as you see describ'd in this Figure.
Of the Square and its Vse.
[figure]
If the Work you are to file be an hollow square, you must apply the outer Square ABC to it, and try how, when one side of the Square, is applied to one side of your Work, the other side of your Work agrees with the other side of the Square; which if it do, all is well: But if the Square and the Work comply not with one another, you must file the Work where it bears the Square off. But to return where I left.
Having made these two ends square, you must fit the length of them to the thickness of the Fore and Backsides into which they are to enter, but so as the Squares be not full so long as to come quite thro' the Fore and Backsides, lest when the Nuts are screw'd on the Screw-pins that are at the ends of these Squares, they screw full up to the Squares, and bear against the corners of them; which if they do, the Nuts will not draw the Fore and Back⯑sides close against the shoulder of the Squares, on the top and bottom Pieces, and then the whole Jack Frame will not stand fast and firm together.
But before you fit this Frame thus together, you must consider the Diameter of the Main-wheel, that you may Punch round Holes in the Fore and Backsides to enter the Main-spindle. Therefore o⯑pen your Compass to half the intended Diameter of the Main-wheel, and half a quarter, or an whole quarter of an Inch more for play, between [42] the Semi-diameter of the main Wheel, and the up⯑per flat of the bottom Piece, and set that distance off from the upper flat of the bottom Piece, on the Fore and Backsides, and with a round Punch, some⯑what smaller than the intended size of the main Spindle, Punch Holes at that setting off. Your Punch must be smaller than the main Spindle, be⯑cause the holes may perhaps not be so exactly round, or Punch'd so truly upright, or perfectly smooth as they ought to be; and should you make the holes so wide at first as they need to be, you could not mend them, without making them wider. These holes must be Punch'd at the Fire or Forge (as Smiths say, when they take an Heat of their Work to Punch it) because the Fore and the Backsides are too strong (as Smiths say) that is, too thick to Punch with the Cold Punch. The way of Punching them you were taught Numb. I. fol. 11, 12. Besides a Cold Punch is commonly made flat at the bottom, and therefore does not prick an Hole, but cut an Hole (if the Iron be not too strong) for that flat bottom, and the up⯑right side about it, met in an Angle or Edge at the bottom, which Edge, by the force of the Hammer, cuts the Iron (if it be not too strong) when it is laid upon a Bolster, as it is describ'd Numb. I. fol. 12. and should you cut out so much Iron in the Fore and Backsides, as would entertain the main Spindle (it being thick) you will make the Fore and Backsides too wide; therefore as I said, the Holes must be prickt in the Fore and Backsides at the Fire or Forge, which with a sharp pointed Punch is sooner done; nor does pricking diminish the substance or strength of the Iron, but makes it swell out at the sides, and retain both substance and strength. The irregularity or swel⯑ling out that this Punching makes on the flats of the Fore and Backsides, you must Hammer down [43] again with almost a Blood-red-heat, I say, almost a Blood-red-heat; because, should you take too great an Heat, you may make the Fore and Backsides stretch, and so put the whole Jack-frame out of order.
Having punch'd the Holes for the main Spindle, you must Punch the Holes in the Fore and Back⯑sides for the Worm-wheel Spindle, as you Punch the Holes for the main Spindle; but these must be small Holes, to entertain the small Ends or Pins of the Worm-wheel Spindle.
These Holes thus Punch'd, may perhaps not be exactly round or fit your size, nor will they be smooth enough within; therefore, with a a Square-bore, you must b open them wider to your size, and that opening them in the inside, will both round [...]nd smooth them.
You must also Punch a square hole towards the top of the Foreside, for the Shank of the Worm-Loop.
Then Forge and sit in your Main-wheel Spindle, and your Worm-wheel Spindle, which Spindles must both be exactly straight between the corners of their two ends (unless you like to have Moldings for Ornaments on them) and Forge a Square to⯑wards the ends of both the Spindles, to fit into a square hole in the middle of the Cross of their Wheels, and leave substance enough for a shoulder beyond the square, to stop the square hole in the Cross of the Wheels from sliding farther on the Spindle, and you must leave substance of Iron e⯑nough to Forge the Nut of the Worm-wheel near the other end. But in this, and indeed in all other Forging remember (as I told you Numb. I. fol. 9) that it behoves you to Hammer or Forge your Work as true as you can, least it cost you great pains at the Vice.
[44]Then Forge the Worm-spindle, which is all the way round and straight, unless you will have Moldings for Ornaments (as aforesaid) upon the Shank of it: But you must be sure to Forge substance enough for the Worm to be cut out of it.
The Main and Worm-wheels are Forg'd round and flat.
The manner of Forging these Wheels (which in Smith's Language is, Turning up the Wheels) is, first, to draw out a square Rod (as you were taught Numb. I. fol. 9. among the several Heats of Iron) somewhat thicker than you intend your Wheel shall be; but it must be almost as thin on one side, as you intend the inner edge of the Wheel shall be, and the opposite to it above twice that thickness, for the outer edge of the Wheel: the reason you will find by and by. Having drawn from your square Rod a convenient length, viz. almost three times the Diameter of your in⯑tended Wheel, you must take almost a Flame-heat, and Hammer all along the whole length up⯑on the thick edge, so will you find the long Rod by this Hammering, turn by degrees rounder and rounder in, upon the thin edge, which you Ham⯑mer'd not upon, till it become a Circle, or pretty near a Circle. But you must make it somewhat more than a Circle, for the ends must lap over one another, that they may be welded upon one another.
Thus you may see the Reason for making the outer edge of the Rod thick, and the oppo⯑site Edge thin; for your Hammering upon the outer edge only, and not on the inner, makes the outer edge a great deal thinner, and at the same time makes the Wheel broader.
[45]The Reason why I told you, you should draw fourth the Rod to almost three times the Dia⯑meter of the Wheel, and not to the Geome⯑trical proportion; is, because that in Hammer⯑ing upon it to make it round, the Rod will stretch so considerably, that it will be long enough to make a Wheel of your intended Diameter, and most commonly somewhat to spare. But to return.
Before you take a welding Heat, as by Numb. I. fol. 9, 10. you must flatten the two ends that are to be welded together, to a little more than half their thickness, that when they are lapt over one another, and welded together, they may be no thicker than the other part of the Wheel.
If the Wheel be not turned up so round, that with a little labour you may mend them at the Vice; you must with Blood red Heats Hammer them round upon the Pike or Bickern of the Anvel, holding with your Tongs the inner edge of the Wheel upon it, and Hammering upon the outer edge of the Wheel, till the Wheel be fit for the Vice: Their insides must be divided into four equal Parts or four c Dufftail notches to be fil'd into them. The Dufftail notches are cut in the inner edge of the Wheel, somewhat more than a quarter of an Inch deep, and spreading somewhat wider towards the outer edge. The notches are to re⯑ceive the four ends of a Cross Forg [...]d somewhat thicker towards the ends than the thickness of the Wheel, and must be filed outer Dufftails, to let exactly into the inner Dufftail notches made in the inside of the Wheel. They must be Forg'd thicker than the Wheel, because they must batter over both the flat sides of the Wheel, to keep the Wheel strong and steady upon the Cross; and sometimes (for more security) they are brazed into the Wheel (yet that is but seldom) the middle of this Cross [46] is made broad, that when the square of the Spin⯑dle, it may have strength enough to bear the vio⯑lence offered at, as well in winding up the great weight, that keeps the Wheels in motion, as in the checking and turning the Jack-winder back, to set the Jack a going, when by the winding up, it may be subject to stand still, or sometimes, for want of weight▪ or else for want of Oiling or some other accident.
These Wheels thus Forg'd and Filed flat, must be divided, the main Wheel commonly into 64 equal parts, and the worm Wheel into 32 equal parts; but these Numbers are not exactly observ'd by Smiths, for sometimes they make them more and sometimes less, either according to the size of their Wheels, or according as they intend their Wheels shall go, swifter or slower about (for the fewer the Teeth on a Wheel are, the sooner a Wheel goes about and the more Teeth on a Wheel, the slower the Wheel goes about) or sometimes as they have open'd their Compasses to divide them: For if by luck, they at first open their Compasses to such a width, as will just measure out on a Circle, (which they describe on the Center of the Wheel for that purpose) their intended number, than the Wheel shall have the intended Number of Teeth; if not, let it somewhat fall short, or exceed that Number, they matter not, but make that Num⯑ber of Teeth on the Wheel. And having thus di⯑vided the Wheel, they by the side of a straight Ru⯑ler laid to the Center, and every division markt on the Wheel, draw or scratch a straight line from the outer limb of the Wheels, to the Circle, which Circle (I should have told you before) is describ'd at that distance from the outer Verge, they in⯑tend the Teeth shall be cut down to. This is in⯑deed a rough way of working, but the Office of a Jack is well enough performed by this rough [47] Work; and the usual prizes such, as will scarce pay Workmen for better, as they say.
These Wheels thus divided, must be cut down into these Divisions with a d Jack-file, the Main-wheel straight thwart the outer Verge, (which to speak Mathematically, makes an Angle of 90 de⯑grees with the flat sides of the Wheel,) and the Worm-wheel aslope, making an Angle of about 115 degrees with its sides, that is, an Angle of 25 degrees, with a line drawn straight athwart the outer Edge of the Wheel, and that Teeth of the Worm-wheel may gather themselves into the Grooves of the Worm in the Worm-spindle; the Worm on the Worm-spindle running about 65 degrees aslope from this Axis, or Perpendicular of the Worm-spindle; the notches you make with the File must be so wide, as to contain about twice the thickness of of each Tooth: Therefore you may observe, that the Number of Teeth cannot be assign'd, because the Sizes of all Jack wheels are not of equal Dia⯑meters, and the Sizes of the Teeth must be filed very square and smooth, as the corners taken off, and rounded on both sides towards the middle of the top or end of the Tooth, which much helps the Teeth to gather in upon the Teeth of the Nut, and the Worm on the Worm-spindle.
The Teeth of the Wheels being cut down, and the whole Wheel finish'd, they must be forc'd stiff and hard upon the square of the Spindle, close up to the Shoulder; which Square being made some⯑what longer than the Cross of the Wheel is thick, must with a Cold-Chissel be cut on the top of that Square, to make the Iron that comes through the Square hole of the Wheel, spread over the Cross of the Wheel, and then that spreading must be battered with the Pen of the Hammer; that it may stand up stiff against the shoulder of the Square, on the other side of the Wheel; but in [48] doing this, you must be very careful that the Spindle stand exactly Perpendicular to the flat sides of your Wheels; for should the Spindle lean never so little to one, or the other side of the Wheel, the the Wheel when it is moving in the Jack-frame would not move perpendicular, but wabble to⯑wards the Fore or Backsides of the Jack-frame, and perhaps by this irregular motion, before a revo⯑lution of the Wheel be perform'd, it would go off from the length of the Teeth of the Nut.
Then file the Spindle-pins (which are the ends of the Spindle, that go into the Center-holes of the Fore and Backsides of the Jack-frame) exactly round and fit to their Center-holes, and place them into their proper Center-holes. Then try if the Wheels are exactly round on their outer edges, and that in turning about, their flat sides wabble not, but in a revolution keep Parallel to the Fore and Backsides. The way Smiths use to try them by is, to turn them about by the Spindle, and holding a piece of Chalk steddy to the outer Limb of the Wheel, not letting the Point of the Chalk slip forwards or backwards, or towards the right or left Hand▪ for then if the Chalk make a white stroke round the whole Wheel, and that white stroke lie exactly Parallel to the two outer Edges of the Wheel, the Wheel is not only round, but stands also true upon its Spindle, that is, Per⯑pendicular to the Spindle, and the Spindle Perpen⯑dicular to the flat of it: But if the Chalk does not touch round the Wheel, you must file down so much of the outer Verge of the Wheel, where the Chalk does touch, as will bring down or equalize the Diameter of the Wheel in that place, to the Diameter of the Wheel in the place where it does not touch; so you may conclude the Wheel is round. If the Mark of the Chalk lie not ex⯑actly in the middle between the two edges of [49] the Wheel, then it is not Perpendicular to the Spindle, and you must with the Hammer set it right, that is Perpendicular, by forcing the Wheel over from the side it leans too much to, or else by forcing the Spindle, which is all one; yet this is an help you ought not to rely upon but in case of necessity; rather be sure your Wheel and Spindle stand Perpendicular to one another, before you fasten the Wheel upon the square of the Spindle, for by this help the square on the Spindle will be apt to loosen in the square of the Wheel, and you will have your Wheel to now fasten upon the Square of the Spindle again.
As you try'd the Wheels with Chalk, so you must try the Nut, the Worm and the Spindle.
The upper part of the Worm-spindle, must be Fil'd truly round to fit into the Worm-loop, that it shake not in it, and yet go very easily about, without the least stopping. At the upper end of this round on the Worm Spindle, you must file a square to sit the square hole of the Fly upon.
The Shank of the Worm-loop and the Stud of the Worm-spindle, must stand so far off the left side of the fore side, that the Teeth of the Worm-wheel, may fall full into the Grooves of the Worm; for so both being cut with the same slope, the slope Teeth of the Worm-wheel will gather into the slope Grooves of the Spindle, and pressing up⯑on the Worm, drive about the Worm-spindle and the Fly.
The Fly is made sometimes with two, some⯑times with four Arms from the Center, and sometimes the Arms are made longer, some⯑times shorter: The more Arms, and also the longer Arms, are to make the Jack go slower.
There is yet a small matter more of Iron-work about the Jack, which is the Tumbler; but it lies in the farther end of the Barrel, and cannot well [50] be describ'd without a particular Figure, which therefore I have inserted. As in Fig. 2. A the Barrel, B the Main spindle coming through the Barrel, a the Center of the Tumbler moving up⯑on the Center-pin, which is fasten'd into an Iron-plate behind the Barrel b The Coller upon the Main-spindle, from which proceeds a Tongue, which passes through a pretty wide hole at c in the Tumbler, as far as cc the Catch of the Tumbler ▪ The Tumbler moves as aforesaid, upon the Center hole a, but receives the Tongue through it at c, and passes as far as e. This Tongue serves as a Cheek to the Tumbler, that it cannot tumble above an Angle of 20 degrees, from the Iron-plate it is fasten'd to; and that the width of its Center-hole, and the width of the Tongue passes through, and the motion of the Coller about the Main-spindle allows it; but were the Center-hole a, and its Center-pin fit, and the Hole c, and the Tongue that also passes through it also fit, and the Coller fixt, it could not move at all. But this play is enough for it, to do the purpose it is design'd for. The Tumbler is so plac [...]d behind the Barrel, that while the Jack line is winding up upon the Barrel, its round britch passes forwards by all the Crosses of the Main-wheel, and the Point or Catch d, as then claps it self snug or close to the Iron-plate of the Barrel: But when the Barrel is turn'd to the contrary way, the weight of the Catch in half a revolution of the Barrel (let the Tumbler be posited where it will) makes it open and fall from the Iron-plate, and butt against one or other of the Crosses on the Main-wheel, and so thrusts the Main wheel about with the Barrel.
The Eye of the W [...]nch or Winder, is forg'd as you were taught to forge the Pin-hole in the Cross-garnet, Numb. II. fol. 18. But that was to be a small round hole, and therefore you were direct⯑ly [51] to lay a small round piece of Iron or Wyre, where you intended the Pin hole should be, and lap the other end of your Work over it; but this is to be a wide square hole, therefore you must lay a square piece of Iron of your size, where the Eye of the Jack-winch shall be and lap or double the other end over it, and Weld and Work as you were directed. The rest of the Winch is but common Forging and Filing Work, which hath been sufficiently taught already.
The Wood-work belonging to the Jack ▪ is a Barrel, a Spi [...]-wheel and a Handing of the Winch; which being Turners Work, I shall say nothing to, till I come to the Art of Turning. Only those Wheels that have more than one Groove in them, are call [...]d Two, Three, &c. Struck-wheels, in Workmens corrupting [...]anguage; but I sup⯑pose, originally two Stroak, three Stroak-wheels, &c. from the number of Grooves that are in them.
The Excellencies of a good Jack are, 1. That the Jack-frame be Forg'd and [...]il [...]d Square, and conveniently Strong, well set together, and will Screw close and tight up. 2. That the Wheels be Perpendicularly, and strongly fix'd on the Squares of the Spindles. 3. That the Teeth be evenly cut and well smooth'd, and that the Teeth of the Worm-wheel fall evenly into the Groove of the Worm. 4. That the Spindle Pins shake not between the Fore and Backsides, nor are too big, or too little for their Center holes.
a The square Bore, is a square Steel Point or Shank well Temper'd, fitted into a square Socket in an Iron Wimble: It is describ'd, Fig. 3. Its use is to open a Hole and make it truly round and smooth within; when you use it, you must set the Head against your [52] Breast, and put the Point of the square Bore into the Hole you punch'd or would open, and turning the Handle about, you with it turn about the Shank of the square Bore, whose Edges cut away the Irregularities of the Iron made in the Punching. But you must thrust or lean hard with your Breast against the Head of the square Bore, that it may cut the faster: And you must be sure to guide the square Bore truly straight forwards in the Hole, lest the Hole be wrought aslope in the Iron.
b To open an Hole, is in Smith's Language, to make the Hole wider.
c A Dufftail, is a Figure made in the form of a Doves-tail, and is us'd by many other Handy-crafts, as well as Smiths, but most especially by Joyners, as I shall shew, when I come to Joynery.
d A Jack-file, is a broad File somewhat thin on both Edges, and stronger in the Middle.
The manner of making Molds to Cast Leaden-Bullets in.
I Insert the making of Bullet molds, because there is some sort of Work in them different from what hath yet been taught. The Handles, and the Heads are Forg [...]d as other Work, but the two concave Hemisphers, are first Punch'd with a round ended Punch, of the shape and al⯑most of the size you intend the Bullet shall be. They must be Punch'd deep enough at the Forge with a blood red heat; then are the Edges of the Chaps Filed flat, first with a common File the common way, but afterwards with an using File as Workmen call it. The using File, is a long and broad File, exactly flat on both its cut sides, having a square Iron handle down out at [53] one end with an hole in it; but the Handle is not to hold it by when you use it, but the hole in it to go over a pin you hang it upon, when you do not use it. When you use it, you must lay it flat upon the Work bench, with its Handle, from you, and you must take care that it lies so⯑lid and steady, lest when you Work upon it, it slip from you; therefore you may strike a Nail in at the hole in the Handle, a little way into the Work bench, that you may draw it again, when you have done with the using File, you may drive in a small Tack on each side the using File, to keep it steddy or you may Tack down two small thin boards on either side and rip them off again when you have done. Your using File lying thus straight and steddy before you, lay the Chaps of one half of the Mold flat upon the hither end of the using File, and holding your two Thumbs, and your two Fore-fingers upon the Head of the Mold, thrust your Work hard down from you the whole length of the Using-file, then draw your Work lightly back, and thrust it again hard from you; retire these thrusts thus, till upon the Chaps of the Mold, you can see no irregularities, or the File-stroaks of the common File lest, so may you be sure that the Chaps of the Mold is truly flat. Do the like by the other half of the Mold.
Now you must try whether each of these con⯑caves be an exact half-round; thus you may de⯑scribe an Arch a little more than a Semi-circle, just of the Diameter of the Bullet, upon the end of a thin piece of Brass-latin, draw a straight Line through the Center, and the Arch on both sides it, for the limits of the Semi-circle; File very curiously all the Brass away on the end, just to this Semi-circle, and just to the Diametral-line, [54] on either side of the Semi-circle, so have you a convex Semi-circle: Put this convex Semi-circle into the Concave Molds, if it fits them so as the Convex reaches just the bottom of the Molds, when its Shoulder touches just the Chaps of the Mold, they are each a true concave He⯑misphere. But if the Shoulder of the Convex (that is, a Diametral-line prolong'd) rides upon the Chaps of the Concave, and the bottom of the Convex touch not the bottom of the Con⯑cave, the Concave is Punch'd too deep, and must have its Chaps rubb'd upon the Using-file again, till it comply with the Convex. Then put into the two Concaves a round Bullet, that will just fill them both, and pinching the Heads of the Mold close together in a Vice, with the Bullet in it, drill an hole through both the handles of the Joint. The reason why the Bullet is put into the Mold is, because the Chaps of the two Halves should lie exactly upon one another, whilst the hole for the Joint is drilling. Then fit a Rivet-pin for this hole, and Rivet them together, but not so hard, but that the Mold may open and shut pretty easie, and yet go true. Then take the Bullet out, and File in each half of the Head, half a round hole directly against one another for the a G [...]a [...], which two half holes, when the Mold is shut, will make one round hole.
You may now try with Clay, or by casting a leaden Bullet in it, whether it be exactly round or no; for making a true round hole in a thin piece of Brass, just of the Circumference of the Chaps, you may try if the Cast-bullet will just pass thro', and also fill that hole when the Bullet is turn [...]d every way; which if it do, you may conclude the Mold is true. This thin piece of Brass, with a round hold in it, is call'd a Sizer.
[55]But the inside wants cleansing, for hitherto it is only Punch'd. Therefore you must provide a b Bullet-bore, with which you may bore the in⯑side of each half to clear it. Or if they be not quite deep enough Punch [...]d, you may bore them deeper. You may bore them severally, or toge⯑ther, by putting the Bullet-bore into the Mold, so as the Shank may come through the Geat.
In this Section you see, first the use of a Using-file, an Instrument of great use for a flat Filing; for by it you may make two pieces of Iron of somewhat considerable breadth, so true, that by laying the two flat sides upon each other, they shall draw up one another. It is much used by Clock-makers, Watch-makers, Letter-mold-makers, and indeed all others that frame Square-work on Iron, Steel or Brass. Secondly, the use of a Bullet-bore, which though it be seldom us'd, yet it may serve not only for Bullet-molds, but for other purposes; and by altering its shape into an Oblong, a Cone or Cilinder, you may bore these hollow Figures either for Molds, or some other accidental Uses.
a A Great, is the hole through which the Met⯑tal runs into the mold. The Word is us'd by most Founders.
b The Bullet-bore, is a Shank of Steel, having a Steel Globe or Bullet at one end, just of your intended Bullet size. This Globular end must be Hatch'd with a fine cut, by a File-cutter, and Harden'd and Temper'd. The end of the Shank, this Globular Bore is fastned to, must be round and so small, that when the Bullet-bore is in the mold, the Geat will easily receive it. The other end of the Shank must be fitted into the square Socket of the Wimble, and have a Shoulder to it, [56] to stop the Socket from sliding too far upon the Shank. From this Shoulder, the rest of the Shank must run Tapering down, to the small end the Bullet-bore is fastned to. You must Work with it, as you were taught to Work with the Square-bore.
Of Twisting of the Iron.
SQuare and flat Bars, sometimes are by Smiths, Twisted for Ornament. It is very easily done; for after the Bar is Square or flat Forg'd (and if the curiosity of your Work require it truly Fil'd) you must take a Flame-heat, or if your Work be small, but Blood-red heat, and you may twist it about, as much or as little as you please, either with the Tongs, Vice or Hand-vice, &c.
Of Case-hardning.
CAse-hardning is sometimes us'd by File-cutters, when they make course Files for Cheapness, and generally most Rasps have formerly been made of Iron and Case-hardned, because it makes the outside of them hard. It is us'd also by Gun-smiths, for Hardning their Barrels; and it is us'd for Tobacco-boxes, Cod-piece-buttons, Heads for Walking-s [...]aves, &c. And in these Cases, Work⯑men to set a greater value on them in the Buyers esteem, call them Steel-barrels, Steel-tobacco-boxes, Steel-buttons, Steel-heads, &c. But Iron thus hardned takes a better Polish and keeps the Po⯑lish much longer and better, than if the Iron were not Case hardned. The manner of Case-hardning is thus, Take Cow-horn or Hoof, dry it thoroughly in an Oven, and then beat it to Pow⯑der, put about the same quantity of Bay-Salt to it, and mingle them together with stale Chamberly, or else White-wine-vinegar. Lay some of this mixture upon the Loam, made as you were [57] taught Numb. I. fol. 13. And cover your Iron all over with it; then wrap the Loam about all, and lay it upon the Hearth of the Forge to dry and harden: When it is dry and hard, put it into the Fire and blow up the Coals to it, till the whole Lump have just a Blood-red-heat, but no higher, lest the quality of your mixture burn away and leave the Iron as soft as at first. Then take it out and quench it: Or, instead of Loam, you may wrap it up in Plate Iron, so as the mix⯑ture may touch every part of your Work, and blow the Coals to it, as aforesaid.
Of several sorts of Steel in common use among Smiths.
THE difficulty of getting good Steel makes many Workmen (when by good hap they light on it) commend that Country-Steel for best, from whence that Steel came. Thus I have found some cry up Flemish-steel, others Swe⯑dish, English, Spanish, Venice, &c. But according to my Observation and common Consent of the most ingenious Workmen, each Country pro⯑duces almost indifferently good and bad; yet each Country doth not equally produce such Steel, as is fit for every particular purpose, as I shall shew you by and by. But the several sorts of Steel, that are in general use here in England, are the English, the Flemish, the Swedish, the Spanish and the Venice-steel.
The English-steel is made in several places in England, as in Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, Sussex, the Wild of Kent, &c. But the best is made about the Forrest of Dean, it breaks Fiery, with some⯑what a course Grain But if it be well wrought and proves sound, it makes good Edge-tools, Files and Punches. It will work well at the Forge, and take a good Heat.
[58]The Flemish-steel is made in Germany, in the Country of Stiermark and in the Land of Luyck: From thence brought to Colen, and is brought down the River Rhine to Dort, and other parts of Holland and Flanders, some in Bars and some in Gads, and is therefore by us call'd Flemish-steel, and sometimes Gad-steel. It is a tough sort of Steel, and the only Steel us'd for Watch-springs. It is also good for Punches; File-cutters also use it to make their Chissels of, with which they cut their Files. It breaks with a fine Grain, works well at the Forge, and will take a weld⯑ing Heat.
I cannot learn that any Steel comes from Swe⯑den, but from Dantzick comes some which is call'd Swedish-steel: It is much of the same Qua⯑lity and Finess with Flemish-steel.
The Spanish-steel is made about Biscay. It is a fine sort of Steel, but some of it is very dif⯑ficult to work at the Forge, because it will not take a good Heat; and it sometimes proves very unsound, as not being well curried, that is well wrought. It is too quick (as Workmen call it) that is, too brittle for Springs or Punches, but makes good fine Edg'd-tools.
Venice-steel is much like Spanish steel, but much finer, and Works somewhat better at the Forge. It is us'd for Razors, Chirurgion's In⯑struments, Gravers, &c. Because it will come to a fine and thin Edge. Razor makers gene⯑rally clap a small Bar of Venice-steel between two small Bars of Flemish-steel, and so Work or Weld them together, to strengthen the back of the Razor, and keep it from crack⯑ing
[59]There is another sort of Steel, of higher com⯑mendations than any of the forgoing sorts: It is call'd Damascus-steel; 'tis very rare that any comes into England unwrought, but the Turkish-Cymeters are generally made of it. It is most difficult of any Steel to Work at the Forge, for you shall scarce be able to strike upon a Blood-heat, but it will Red-sear; insomuch that these Cymeters are, by many Workmen, thought to be cast Steel. But when it is wrought, it takes the finest and keeps the strongest Edge of any other Steel. Workmen set almost an inestimable va⯑lue upon it to make Punches, Cold-punches, &c. of. We cannot learn where it is made, and yet as I am inform'd, the Honourable Mr. Boyl hath been very careful and industrious in that en⯑quiry; giving it in particular charge to some Travellers to Damascus, to bring home an Ac⯑count of it: But when they came thither they heard of none made there, but were sent about 50 Miles into the Country and then they were told about 50 Miles farther than that: So that no certain Account could be gain'd where it is made. Kirman towards the Ocean affords ve⯑ry fine Steel, of which they make Weapons highly priz'd; for a Cymeter of that Steel, will cut through an Helmet with an easie blow. Geog. Rect. fol. 279.
The Rule to know good Steel by.
BReak a little piece of the end of the Rod, and observe how it breaks; for good Steel breaks short of all Gray, like frost work Silver. But in the breaking of the bad you will find some veins of Iron shining and doubling in the Steel.
Of Nealing of Steel.
[60]HAving chose your Steel and forg'd it to your intended shape, if you are either to File Engrave or to Punch upon it, you ought to Neal it first, because it will make it softer and consequently work easier. The common way is to give it a Blood-red-heat in the Fire, then take it out, and let it cool of it self.
There are some pretenders to know how to make Steel as soft as Lead; but so oft as my Curiosity has prompted me to try their preten⯑ded Processes, so oft have they fail'd me; and not only me, but some others, careful Obser⯑vers. But the way they most boast of, is the often heating the Iron or Steel in red-hot Lead, and letting it cool of it self with the Lead. I have many times try'd this without any other success, than that it does make Iron or Steel as soft as if it were well Neal'd the common way, but no softer: And could it be otherwise, the small Iron Ladles, that Letter-founders use to the casting of Printing [...]Letters, would be very soft indeed; for their Iron Ladles are kept con⯑stantly Month after Month in melting Mettal, whereof the main Body is Lead, and when they cast small Letters, they keep their Mettal red-hot; and I have known them many times left in the Mettal and cool with it, as the Fire has gone out of it self; but yet the Iron Ladles have been no softer, than if they had been well Neal [...]d the common way. But perhaps these Pretenders mean the Iron or Steel shall be as soft as Lead, when the Iron or Steel is red-hot; if so, we may thank them for nothing.
[61]But that which makes Steel a very small matter softer than the common way of Nealing is, by covering Steel with a course Powder of Cow-Horns, or Hoofs, or Rams-Horns, and so in⯑closing it in a Loam: Then put the whole Lump into a Wooden Fire to heat red-hot and let it lie in the Fire till the Fire go out of it self, and the Steel cool with the Fire.
Of Hardning and Tempering Steel.
ENglish, Flemish and Swedish-steel, must have a pretty high heat given them, and then suddenly quench in Water to make them very hard; but Spanish and Venice-steel will need but a Blood-red-heat, and then when they are quench [...]d in Water, will be very hard. If your Steel be too hard, that is to brittle, and it be an edg'd or pointed Instrument you make, the edge or point will be very subject to break; or if it be a Spring, it will not bow, but with the least bend⯑ing it will snap assunder: Therefore you must let it down (as Smiths say) that is, make it softer, by tempering it. The manner is thus, take a piece of Grin-stone or Whet-stone and rub hard upon your Work to take the black Scurf off it, and brighten it; then let it heat in the Fire, and as it grows hotter you will see the Colour change by degrees, coming to a light goldish Colour, then to a dark goldish Colour, and at last to a blew Colour; choose which of these Colours your Work requires, and then quench it suddenly in Water. The light goldish Colour is for Files, Cold-chissels and Punches, that Punch into Iron and Steel: The dark goldish Colour for Punches to use on Brass, and generally for most Edge-tools: The blew Colour gives the Temper to Springs in general, and is also us'd to Beautifie both Iron and Steel; but then Workmen some⯑times [62] grind Indico and Sallad-oyl together, and rub that mixture upon it, with a woollen Rag, while it is heating, and let it cool of it self.
There is another sort of Hardning, call'd Ham⯑mer-hardning. It is most us'd on Iron or Steel Plates, for Dripping pans, Saws, Straight-Rulers, &c. It is perform'd only, with well Hammering of the Plates, which both smooths them, and beats the Mettal firmer into its own Body, and somewhat hardens it.
The manner of Forging Steel, either for Edge-tools, Punches, Springs, &c. Is (the seve⯑ral shapes consider'd) the same with forging Iron: Only this general Rule observe, from an old English Verse us'd among Smiths, when they Forge Edge-tools,
He that will a good Edge win,
Must Forge thick and Grind thin.
The End of Smithing.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
The Art of JOINERY.
[63]Definition.
JOINERY, is an Art Manual, whereby seve⯑ral Pieces of Wood are so fitted and join'd toge⯑ther by Straight-line, Squares, Miters or any Bevel, that they shall seem one intire Piece.
Explanation.
By Straight-Lines I mean that which in Joy⯑ner's Language is call'd a Joint, That is, two Pieces of Wood are Shot (that is Plained,) or else they are Pared, that is, the irregularities that hinder the closing of the two Pieces are cut off with a Pairing-chissel. They are Shot or Pared (as I said) so exactly straight, that when they are set upon one another, light shall not be discern'd betwixt them. This they call Shoot⯑ing of a Joint, or Paring to a Joint, because these two Pieces are with Glew commonly join'd together, either to make a Board broad enough for their purpose, or to a Clamp one piece of Wood to the end of another piece of Wood to keep it from Casting or Warping.
[64]By Squares, I mean the making of Frames, ei⯑ther for Door-cases or such like, which is the Framing of two pieces of Wood athwart two other pieces of Wood, so as the four Angles of the Frame may comply with the Square mar⯑ked D.
By Miters are meant the joining of two pieces of Wood, so as the Joint makes half a Square, and does comply with the Miter-square mar⯑ked E.
By a Bevel is meant any other Angle: As Frames that may be made of Pentagon, Hexagon, Octagon, &c. Figures.
§ 1. The Names of Joyners Tools describ'd, in Plate IV.
AA Work-bench. b The Hook in it, to lay Boards or other b Stuff flat against, whilst they are c Trying or Plaining. c The Bench-Screw (on its hither side) to Screw Boards in, whilst the Edges of them are Plaining or d Shoot⯑ing; and then the other edge of the Board is set upon a Pin or Pins (if the Board be so long as to reach the other Leg) put into the Holes marked aaaaa down the Legs of the Bench; which Pin or Pins may be removed into the higher or lower holes, as the breadth of the Board shall re⯑quire: So then, the Bench-screw keeps the Board close to the edge of the Bench, and the Pins in the Legs keep it to its height, that it may stand steddy whilst the other edge is working upon: For in the Shooting of a Joint, if the Board keeps not its exact position, but shakes or trem⯑bles under the Plain, your Joint will very hardly be truly straight. d The Hold-fast, let pretty loose into round holes marked bbbbbb, in the Bench: Its Office is to keep the Work fast upon the Bench, whilst you either Saw, Tennant, [65] Mortess, or sometimes Plain upon it, &c. It per⯑forms this Office with the knock of an Hammer, or Mallet, upon the head of it; for the Beak of it being made crooked downwards, the end of the Beak falling upon the flat of the Bench, keeps the head of the Hold-fast above the flat of the Bench, and the hole in the Bench the Shank is let into being bored straight down, and wide enough to let the Hold-fast play a little, the head of the Hold-fast being knockt, the point of the Beak throws the Shank a-slope in the hole in the Bench, and presses its back-side hard against the edge of the hole on the upper Superficies of the Bench, and its fore-side hard against the oppersite side of the under Super⯑f [...]cies of the B [...]nch and so by the point of the Beak, the Shank of the Hold-fast is wedged between the upper edge, and its oppersite edge of the round hole in the Bench. Sometimes a double Screw is fixed to the side of the Bench, as at g; or some⯑times its farther Cheek is laid an edge upon the flat of the Bench, and fastned with an Hold-fast, or, sometimes, two on the Bench. e A Mallet.
§. 2. BBBBBBB Plains of several Sorts: as,
B 1. A Fore Plain. a The T [...]e. b The Mouth▪ c The Wedge d The [...]r [...]n. e The Sole. f The Fore-end. g The Britch. fgh The Stock. All together A Plane. It is called the Fore Plane because it is used before you come to work either with the Smooth Plane, or with the Joynter. The edge of its Iron is not ground upon the straight, as the Smooth Plane, and the Joynter are, but rises with a Convex-Arch in the middle of it; for its Office being to prepare the Stuff for either the Smo [...]thing Plane, or the Joynter, Workmen set the edge of it c Ranker than the edge either of the Smoothing Plane, or the Joynter; and should the Iron of the Plane be ground to a straight edge, [66] and it be set never so little Ranker on one end of the edge than on the other, the Ranker end would (bearing as then upon a point) in working, dig Gutters on the Surface of the Stuff; but this Iron (being ground to a Convex-Arch) though it should be set a little Ranker on one end of its edge than on the other, would not make Gutters on the Surface of the Stuff, but (at the most) little hollow dawks on the Stuff, and that more or less, according as the Plane is ground more or less Arching. Nor is it the Office of this Plane to smooth the Stuff, but only (as I said) to prepare it, that is, to take off the irregular Risings, whe⯑ther on the sides, or in the middle, and therefore it is set somewhat Ranker, that it may take the Irregularities the sooner off the Stuff, that the Smoothing Plane, or the Joynter, may afterwards the easier work it Try. The manner of Trying shall be taught, when I come to Treat of the use of the Rule.
You must note, that as I told you in Smithing, Num. I. fol. 14, 15, 16. it was the Office of the course tooth'd File to take off the prominent Irregu⯑larities the Hammer made in the Forging, &c. and that you were not to file them more away than you need, so the same Caution is to be given you in the using of this fore Plane in Joynery, for the reason there alledged in Smithing, whether, to a⯑void Repetition, I refer you; only with this Con⯑sideration, that there Iron, or Steel, was the mat⯑ter wrought upon, and there a course File the Tool ▪ but now Wood is the matter, and a Course, or Fore-Plane, the Tool.
§. 3 Of setting the Iron.
WHen you set the Iron of the Fore-Plane, con⯑sider the Stuff you are to work upon, viz. Whether it be hard or soft, or Curling, as Joyners [67] call Cross grain'd Stuff: If it be hard or curling, you must not set the Iron veay rank, because a Man [...]s strength will not cut deep into hard Wood; and if it be not hard Wood, but curling, or knotty, and the Iron Rank-set, you may indeed work with it till you come to some Knot, or Curl, but then you may either tear your Stuff, or break the edge of your Iron; therefore you may perceive a reason to set the Iron fine for curling, and knotty Stuff.
But if you ask me how rank your Iron ought to be set? I answer, If your Wood be soft, and your Stuff free, and frowy, that is, evenly temper'd all the way, you may set the Iron to take a shaving off the thickness of an old coined Shilling, but scarce thicker; whereas, if your Stuff be hard, or curling, or knotty, you shall scarce be able to take a sha⯑ving off the thickness of an old Groat. Therefore you must examine the Temper of your Stuff, by easy Trials, how the Plane will work upon it, and set your Iron accordingly. And observe this as a General Rule, that the Iron of the Fore-Plane is, for the first working with it, to be set as rank as you can make good work with; and that for speed sake.
If your Iron be set too rank, knock with an Ham⯑mer upon the Britch of the Stock, and afterwards upon the Wedge; for this knocking upon the Britch, if you knock hard enough, 'twill raise the Iron a little, and set it fine; if you knock not hard enough, you must knock again, till the Iron do rise; but if you knock too hard, it will raise the Iron so much, that its edge will rise above the Sole into the Mouth of the Stock, and consequently not touch the Stuff ▪ Therefore you must knock softly at first, till, by trials, you find the Iron rises to a convenient fineness. But as this knocking on the Britch raises the Iron, so it also raises and loosens the Wedge; therefore (as aforesaid) whenever [68] you knock upon the Britch, you must also knock upon the Wedge, to soften the Iron again.
If you have raised the edge of the Iron too fine, you must knock softly upon the head of the Iron, and then again upon the W [...]dge, and this you may sometimes do several times, till you fit your Iron to a convenient fineness.
When you have occasion to take your Iron out of the Stock to rub it, that is, to whet it, you may knock pretty smart Blows upon the Stock, be⯑tween the Mouth and the Fore-end, to loosen the Wedge, and consequently the Iron.
These ways of setting, are used to all other Planes, as well as Fore-planes.
In the using of this, and indeed, all other Planes, you must begin at the hinder end of the Stuff, the Grain of the Wood lying along the length of the B [...]ch, and Plane forward, till you come to the fore-end, unless the Stuff proves Cros [...]-grain'd, in any part of its length; for then you must turn your Stuff to Plane it the contrary way, so far as it runs Cros [...]-grain'd, and in Plane⯑ing, you must at once, lean pretty hard upon the Plane, and also thrust it very hard forwards, not letting the Plane totter to, or from you-ward [...], till you have made a Stroak the whole length of the Stuff. And this sometimes, if your Stuff be⯑long, will require your making two or three steps forwards, e [...]er you come to the fore-end of the Stuff: But if it do, you must come back, and be⯑gin again at the farther end, by the side of the last plan'd Stroak, and so continue your several lays of Planeing, till the whole upside of the Stuff be planed.
[figure]
This way of Cross-grain'd working, is, by Work⯑men, called Traversing.
Thus have you, in general, the use of all the other Planes: But the use of those Planes, that are designed for other particular purposes, I shall shew, as they come in Order.
§. 4. Of the Joynter. B. 2.
THe Joynter is made somewhat longer than the Fore-plane, and hath its Sole perfectly straight from end to end. Its Office is to follow the Fore-plane, and to [...] an edge perfectly straight, and not only an edge, but also a Board of any thickness; especially when [...] is to be shot. Therefore the Hand must be carried along the whole len [...]th, with an [...] weight, and so exactly [...] to the edges of the Board▪ [...] of the Plane encline either inward or [...] that the whole breadth be [...] both i [...] ⯑sides; supposing [...] s [...]des [...] will two edges of two Boards, when [...] [...] ⯑actly flat and square upon one another, th [...]t light will not be discerned betwixt them [...] is counted a piece of good Workmanship [...] Joyner, to have the Craft of bearing his [...] curiously even, the whole length of a long [...] and yet it i [...] but a sleight to those, Practic [...] [...] [...]ur'd the Hand to. The Joynter is also used to Try Tables with, (large or small) or other such broad Work; and then Joyners work, as well up⯑on the Traverse with it, as with the Grain of the [70] Wood, and also Angularly, or Corner-wise, that they may be the more assur'd of the flatness of their Work.
Its Iron must be set very fine, so fine, that when you wink with one Eye, and set that end the straight side of the Iron is next to the other Eye, there appears a little above an hairs breadth of the edge above the Superficies of the sole of the Plane, and the length of the edge must lie perfect⯑ly straight with the flat breadth of the sole of the Plane: For the Iron being then well wedg'd up, and you working with the Plane thus set, have the greater assurance that the Iron cannot run too deep into the Stuff, and consequently you have the less danger that the Joynt is wrought out of straight.
§. 5. The Use of the Strike-block.
THe Strike-block marked B 3. is a Plane shorter than the Joynter, having its sole made exact⯑ly flat, and straight, and is used for the shooting of a short Joynt; because it is more handy than the long Joynter. It is also used for the framing, and fitting the Joynts of Miters and Bevels; but then it is used in a different manner from other Planes: For if the Miter and Bevel you are to fit be small, you must hold it very steddy in your left hand, with the sole of it upwards, and its fore-end towards your right hand: and you must hold your work in your right hand very steddy: Then apply the sawn Miter, or sawn Bevel at the end of your Stuff, to the fore-end of the Strike-block, and so thrust it hard and upright forwards, till it pass over the edge of the Iron, so shall the edge of the Iron, with several of these thrusts continued, cut, or plane off your stuff the rough⯑ness that the Teeth of your Saw made: But if your work be so big that you cannot well weild [71] it in your right hand, you must set the end of your work in the Bench-screw, and Plane upon it with a smoothing Plane.
§. 6. The Use of the Smoothing-Plane.
THe Smoothing-plane marked B 4. must have its Iron set very fine, because its Office is to smoothen the work from those Irregularities the Fore-plane made.
§. 7. The Use of the Rabbet-Plane.
THe Rabbet-plane marked B 5. is to cut part of the upper edge of a Board, or other Stuff, straight, that is, square down into the Board, that the edge of another Board also cut down in the same manner, may fit and join into the Square of the first Board thus cut away: And when two Boards are thus lapped on the edges over one an⯑other; this lapping over is called Rabbetting.
The Rabbet-plane is also sometimes used to strike a Facia in a piece of Molding; as shall be shewed in its proper place:
The sides of the Iron are not inclosed in the Stock of this Plane, as the fore-going Planes are, but the Iron is full as broad as the stock is thick, that the very Angles of the edge of the Iron may not be born off the Stuff, to hinder the straight and square cutting it down: Nor doth it deli⯑ver its shaving at a Mouth on the top of the Stock as the other Planes do: But it hath its Mouth on the sides of the Plane, and delivers its shavings there. Its Iron is commonly about an Inch broad.
§. 8. The Use of the Plow.
THe Plow marked B 6. is a narrow Rabbet-plane, with some Additions to it: viz. two square Staves, marked aa (yet some of them [72] have the upper edges of them rounded off for the better compliance with the Hand.) These Staves are let stiff through two square Mortesses in the Stock, marked bb They are about seven or eight Inches long, and stand straight and square on the farther side of the Stock; and these two Staves have shoulders on the hither side of the Stock, reaching down to the wooden sole of the Plane, (for there is also an Iron sole belonging to the Plow.) To the bottom of these two Shoulders is, Rivitted with Iron Rivets, a Fence (as Workmen call it) which comes close under the Wooden sole, and its depth reaches below the Iron sole about half an Inch: Because the Iron of the Plow is ve⯑ry narrow, and the sides of it towards the bot⯑tom are not to be inclosed in the Stock, for the same reason that was given in the Rabbet-plane; therefore upon the Stock is let in, and strongly nailed▪ an Iron Plate of the thickness of the Plow-Iron, for Wood of that breadth will not be strong enough to endure the force the lower end of the Plow-Iron is put to: This Iron-Plate is almost of the same thickness that the breadth of a Plow-Iron is. Joyners have several Plows, for several widths of Grooves.
The Office of the Plow is, to plow a narrow square Groove on the edge of a Board; which is thus perform'd. The Board is set an edge with one end in the Bench-screw ▪ and its other edge upon a Pin, or Pins, put into a Hole, or Holes in the Leg, or Legs of the Bench▪ such an Hole, or Holes, as will, most conveniently for height, sit the breadth of the Board: Then the Fence of the Plow is set to that Distance off the Iron-Plate of the Plow, that you intend the Groove shall lie off the edge of the Board: As if you would have the Groove lie half an Inch off the Board, then the two staves must, with the Mallet, be knocked [73] through the Mortesses in the Stock, till the Fence stands half an Inch off the Iron-Plate; and if the Staves are fitted stiff enough in the Mortess of the Stock, it will keep at that Distance whilst you Plow the Groove: For the Fence (lying low⯑er than the Iron of the Plane) when you set the Iron of the Plow upon the edge of the Board, will lie flat against the farther edge of the Board, and so keep the Iron of the Plow all the length of the Board at the same Distance, from the edge of the Board that the Iron of the Plow hath from the Fence. Therefore your Plow being thus fitted, plow the Groove as you work with other Planes, only as you laid hold on the Stock of other Planes when you use them, now you must lay hold of the two staves and their shoulders, and so thrust your Plow forwards, till your Groove be made to your depth.
If the Staves go not stiff enough in the Mortess of the Stock, you must stiffen them, by knocking a little wooden Wedge between the Staves and their Mortesses.
§. 9. Of Molding-Planes·
THere are several other Planes in use amongst Joyners, called Molding-planes; as, the Round, the Hollow, the Ogee, the Snipes-bill, the Rabbet-plane, the Grooving-plane, &c. And of these they have several sorts, viz. from half a quarter of an Inch, to an Inch and a half. They are used as other Planes are. In the Planeing of Stuff, you must use Planes whose Irons have different Mountings; and that according to the hardness, or softness of the Wood, you are to work upon: For if the Wood be hard, the Iron must stand more upright than it need do, if the Wood be soft: For soft Wood, as Deal, Pear-tree, Maple, &c. The Iron is set to make an Angle of 45 De⯑grees, [74] with the Sole of the Plane: But if it be ve⯑ry hard Wood you are to Plane upon, as Box, Ebony, Lignum Vitae, &c. It is set to 80 Degrees, and sometimes quite upright: So that these hard Woods, are, indeed, more properly said to be Scraped, than Planed.
But before you come to use your Planes, you must know how to grind, and whet them, for they are not so fitted when they are bought, but every Workman accomodates them to this pur⯑pose, as if it be an hard Wood he is to work on, he grinds his Basil to a more obtuse Angle, than he would do for soft Wood.
The Basil, or Angle, an Iron is ground to, to work on soft Wood is about 12 Degrees, and for hard Wood about 18, or 20 Degrees. Where note, That the more acute, or thinner the Basil is, the better and smoother the Iron cuts; and the more obtuse and thicker, the stronger the Edge is to work upon hard Work.
§. 10. Of Grinding and Whetting the Iron, and other Edge-Tools.
WHen you grind your Iron, place your two Thumbs under the Iron, and your Fingers of both Hands upon the Iron, and so clap down your Iron to the Stone, holding it to that Angle with the Stone you intend the Basil shall have: Keep the Iron in this Posture, without either mounting, or sinking its ends all the while the Stone is turning about; and when you lift the Iron off the Stone, to see if it be ground to your Mind; if it be not, you must be sure you place the Iron again in the same Position on the Stone it had before; for else you will make a double Basil on your Iron: But if it be true set on the Stone, and steddily kept to that Position, your Basil will be Hollow, and the smaller your Grind-stone [75] is, the hollower it will be. You may know when it is well Ground, by the evenness, and en⯑tireness of the Edge all the way.
Having ground your Iron, you must smoothen the edge finer with a good Whet-stone. Thus, hold the edge of your Iron upward in your left Hand, and your [...]het-stone in your [...]ight, and having first spit upon your Stone to wet it, ap⯑ply it to the Basil of your Iron ▪ in such a Position, that it may bear upon the whole breadth of the Basil; and so working the Stone over the Basil, you will quickly wear the courser grating of the Grind-stone off the edge on that side: Then turn the flat side of the Iron, and apply the Stone flat to it, till you have worn off the course gratings of the Grind-stone, on that side too.
Joiners often grind their Irons upon a flat Grind-stone also: And then they hold the Iron al⯑so in their Hands, in the same Posture as if it were to be ground on the Round Grind-stone: Yet then instead of keeping the Iron on one place of the Stone, they thrust it hard straight forwards, almost the length of the Stone, and draw it lightlier straight back again, keeping it all the while at the same Angle with the Su⯑perficies of the Stone; and then smoothen its edge with the Whet-stone, as if it had been ground upon the round Grind-stone. And this they do so often, till they have rubbed the hollowness of the Basil to a flat, and then they grind it again upon the round Grind-stone.
This Order and Manner of Setting, Grinding and Smoothing a Basil and Edge, is also used in all other Edge-tools Joiners use.
§. 10. Of Chissels of several Sorts. And first of Formers.
[76]FOrmers marked C 1. C 3. are of several sizes▪ They are called Formers, because they are used before the paring Chissel, even as the fore Plane is used before the smoothing Plane. The Stuff you are to work upon being first scribed, (as I shall shew in its proper place) you must set the edge of the Former, a little without the scribed Stroak. with its Basil outwards, that it may break, and shoulder off the Chips from your Work, as the Edge cuts it. And you must bea [...] the Helve of the Former a little inwards over the Stuff, that the Former do not at first cut straight down, but a little outwards: For, should you venture to cut straight down at the first, you might with a negligent, or unluckly knock with the Mallet, drive the edge of the Former under the work. and so cut, before you are a⯑ware, more off the under side than the upper side of your Work, and so (perchance) spoil it. Therefore you may make several Cutting [...] to cut it straight down by little and little, [...] your Work is made ready for the paring Chi [...]sel. When it is used, the Helve of it is kno [...] upon with a Mallet, to drive the edge into [...] Stuff.
§. 11. Of the Paring-Chissel.
THe Paring-Chissel marked C 2. must have [...] very fine and smooth edge: Its Offic [...] to follow the Former, and to pare off, and smoothe [...], the Irregularities the Former made.
It is not knockt upon with the Mallet, but the Blade is clasped upon the out-side of the hi [...]dermost Joints of the fore and little Finger [...] ▪ by the clutched inside of the middle and [...] [77] Fingers of the right Hand, and so its edge being set upon the scribed line, and the top of the Helve placed against the hollow of the inside of the right shoulder, with pressing the shoulder hard upon the Helve, the edge cuts and pares away the Irregularities.
This way of handling, may seem a Preposter⯑ous Posture to manage an Iron Tool in, and yet the reason of the Original Contriver of this Po⯑sture is to be approved; For, should Workmen hold the Blade of the Paring-Chissel in their whole Hand, they must either hold their Hand pretty near the Helve, where they cannot well manage the Tool, or they must hold it pretty near the edge, where the outside of the Fingers will hide the scribed line they are to pare in. But this Po⯑sture, all Workmen are at first taught, and Pra⯑ctice doth so inure them to it, that if they would, they could not well leave it.
§. 12. Of the Skew-Former.
THe Skew-Former marked C 4. is seldom used by Joiners, but for cleansing acute Angles, with its acute Angle on its edge, where the Angles of other Chissels will not so well come.
§. 13. Of the Mortess-Chissel.
THe Mortess Chissel marked C 5. is a narrow Chissel, but hath its Blade much thicker, and consequently stronger (that it may endure the heavier blows with the Mallet) than other Chi [...] ⯑sels have, so that in grinding it to an edge, it is around to a very broad Basil as you may see in the Figure. Its Office is to cut deep square holes, called Mortesses, in a piece of Wood. Joiners use them of several Breadths according as the Breadths of their Mortesses may require.
§. 14. Of the Gouge.
[78]THe Gouge marked C 6. Is a Chissel having a round edge, for the cutting such Wood as is to be Rounded, or Hollowed.
These several sorts of Chissels Joiners have of several Sizes, that they may be accommodated to do several Sizes of Work.
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
Continued in the Art of JOINERY.
[79]§. 15: Of the Square, and its Vse.
THE Square, marked D, is two adjunct Sides of a Geometrical Square. a The Handle. b The Tongue. c The Outer Square. d The Inner Square. For Joiner's use, it is made of two pieces of Wood, the one about an Inch thick, and the other about a quar⯑ter of an Inch thick: These two pieces are seve⯑rally shot exactly straight, and have each of their Sides parallel to each of their own Sides. The thick Piece (called the Handle) hath a Mortess in it, as long within a quarter of an Inch, as the thin piece (called the Tongue) is broad, and stifly so wide, as to contain the thickness of the Tongue. The Tongue is fastned into the Mortess of the Handle with Glew and wooden Pins, so as the two outer sides (and then consequently the two inner sides) may stand at right Angles with one another.
The Reason why the Handle is so much thicker than the Tongue, is, because the Handle should on either side become a Fence to the Tongue. [80] And the reason why the Tongue hath not its whole breadth let into the end of the Handle is, because they may with less care strike a line by the side of a thin than a thick piece: For if in⯑stead of holding the Hand upright when they strike a Line, they should hold it never so little inwards, the shank of a Pricker falling against the top edge of the Handle, would throw the Point of a Pricker farther out than a thin Piece would: To avoid which Inconvenience, the Tongue is left about half an Inch out of the end of the Handle.
Another Reason is. That if with often striking the Pricker against the Tongue it becomes rag⯑ged, or uneven, they can with less trouble Plane it again when the Stuff is all the way of an e⯑qual strength, than they can, if Cross grain'd Shoulders be added to any part of it.
Its use is for the striking of Lines square ei⯑ther to other Lines, or to straight sides, and to try the squareness of their Work by; As if they would strike a Line square to a side they have already shot: They apply the inside of the Han⯑dle close to the side shot, and lay the Tongue flat upon the Work, than by the outerside of the Tongue, they draw with a Pricker a straight Line: This is called Striking, or drawing of a Square. Or, if they would Try the squareness of a Piece of Stuff shot on two adjoining sides, they apply the insides of the Handle and Tongue to the outsides of the Stuff, and if the outsides of the Stuff do all the way agree in Line with the in⯑sides of the Square, it is true Square. Or if they would try the inward squareness of Work, they apply the two outsides of the Square to the in⯑sides of the Work.
§. 16. The manner of Plaining and Trying a piece of Stuff-square.
[81]WE will take, for Example, a Piece of Stuff called a Quarter, which is commonly two Inches thick, four Inches broad, and seven Foot long. To plane this Square, lay one of its broad Sides upon the Bench, with one of its ends shov'd pretty hard into the Teeth of the Bench-hook, that it may lie the steddier. Then with the Fore-Plane, as you were taught, § 2. Numb. 2. Plane off the roughness the Saw made at the Pit, and work that side of the Quarter as streight in its length and breadth as you can with the Fore-Plane; which you may give a pretty good guess at, if the edge of the Iron have born all the way upon the Work. yet you may try by taking up your Work, and applying one end of it to one Eye, whilst you wink with the other, and observe if any Hollow, or Dawks be in the length; if not, you may conclude it pretty true: For the Work thus held, the Eye will discern pretty near⯑ly. Or, for more certainty, you may apply the edge of the two-foot Rule, or rather a Rule shot the full length of the Quarter to your Work, and if it agree all the way with the Rule, you may conclude it is straight in length. But if you find it not straight, you must still with the Fore-Plane work off those Risings that bear the edge of the Rule off any part of the Stuff: Then try if the Breadth be pretty straight; if it be, (the Dawks the roughness the Fore-plane made excepted) the [...] office of the Fore-plane is perform'd: If it be not, you must straighten the Breadth as you [...] Length.
[...] tho' this Quarter be thus plained straight i [...] length and breadth, yet because the [...]on of the Fore-plane for it [...] fast working the St [...]ff is set [82] Rank, and therefore makes great Dawks in the Stuff, you must set the Iron of your Fore-plane finer, as you were taught, §. 3. Numb. 2. and with it then work down even almost to the bot⯑tom of those Dawks: then try it again, as be⯑fore, and if you find it try all the way, you may, with the Jointer, or Smoothing-plane, but rather with the Jointer, go over it again, to work out the irregularities of the fine Fore plane: For the Iron of the Fore-plane being ground to a Rising in the middle, as has been shew'd, §. 2. Numb. 2. though it be very fine set, will yet leave some Dawks in the Stuff for the Jointer, or Smooth⯑ing-plane, to work out. Thus the first side of the Quarter will be finished.
Having thus tryed one side of the Quarter straight and flat, apply the inside of the Handle to it, and if one of the adjoining sides of the Quarter, comply also with the inside of the Tongue all the way, you need only smooth that adjoining side: But if it do not so comply, that is, if it be not square to the first side, which you will know by the riding of the inside of the Tongue upon one of the Edges; or some other part between the Edges, you must, with the Fore-plane Rank-set, plain away that Stuff which bears off the inside of the Tongue from complying all the way with it. But if the Risings be great, you may, for quickness, hew away the Risings with the Hatchet: but then you must have a care you let not the edge of your Hatchet cut too deep into the Stuff, lest you either spoil your Stuff, by making it unsizeable, if it be already small enough; or if it have substance enough, make your self more labour to get out those Hatchet-stroaks with the Plane than you need. Then take off the roughness the Hatchet made with the Fore-plane Rank-set, then fine set, and [83] last of all with the Jointer, or Smoothing-plane: So is the second side also finished.
To work the third side, set the Oval of the Gage exactly to that width from the Gage, that you intend the Breadth of the Quarter (when wrought) shall have, which, in this our Example, is four Inches, but will be somewhat less, because working it true will diminish the Stuff: Therefore sliding the Oval on the Staff, measure on your Inch-Rule so much less than four Inches, as you think your Stuff diminishes in working: Measure, I say, between the Oval and the Tooth, your size: If, at the first proffer, your Oval stand too far from the Tooth, hold the Oval in your Hand, and knock the Tooth-end of your Staff upon the Work-bench, till it stand near enough: If the Oval stand too near, knock the other end of the Staff upon the Work-bench till it be fit. Then apply the flat of the Oval to the second wrought side of your Stuff, so as the Tooth may reach athwart the breadth of the Stuff upon the first side, and keeping the Oval close against the se⯑cond side, press the Tooth so hard down, that by drawing the Gage in this posture all along the length of the Quarter, the Tooth may strike a Line. In like manner upon the side opposite to the first, viz. the fourth side, Gage another line opposite to the first gaged Line, and work your Stuff down to those two gaged Lines on the third side, either with Plaining along, or with Hewing, and afterwards Plaining, as you were taught to work the second side.
To work the fourth side, set the Tooth of the Gage to its exact distance from the Oval, viz. two Inches wanting so much as you think the Stuff di⯑minish'd in working, and apply the flat of the O⯑val to each side of the first side, and Gage as be⯑fore two Lines, one on the second, the other on [84] the third wrought side. Work your Stuff then down on the fourth side to those two Gage lines, either with Plaining alone, or with Hewing, and afterwards Plaining, as you were taught to work the second side
§. 17. To Frame two Quarters Square into one another.
YOU must take care in Mortessing and Ten⯑nanting, that as near as you can equallize the strength of the sides of the Mortess to the strength of the Tenant. I do not mean that the Stuff should be of an equal Substance, for that is not equalling strength: But the equalling strength must be considered with respect to the Quality, Position and Substance of the Stuff: As if you were to make a Tennant upon a piece of Fur, and a Mortess to recieve it in a piece of Oak, and the Fur and Oak have both the same size: The Tennant therefore made upon this piece of Fur, must be considerably bigger than a Tennant need be made of Oak, because Fur is much a weaker Wood than Oak, and therefore ought to have greater Substance to equallize the strength of Oak. And for Position, the shorter the Stuff that the Tennant is made on, the less Violence the Ten⯑nant is subject to. Besides, it is easier to split Wood with the Grain, than to break Wood cros [...] the Grain; and therefore the same Wood when posited as a Tennant, is stronger than the same Wood of the same size when posited as a Mortess: for the injury a Mortess is subject to, is spliting with the grain of the Wood, which, without good care, it will often do in working; but the force that must injure a Tennant, must offend it, cross the Grain of the Wood, in which Position it will best indure Violence.
[85]When two pieces of Wood, of the same qua⯑lity and substance (as in this our Example) are elected to make on the one a Tennant, and in the other a Mortess. If you make the Mortess too wide, the sides of the Mortess will be weaker than the sides that contain the Mortess: And if one be weaker than the other, the weakest will give way to the strongest when an equal Vio⯑lence is offer'd to both. Therefore you may see a necessity of equallizing the strength of one to the other, as near as you can. But because no Rule is extant to do it by, nor can (for many Considerations, I think,) be made, therefore this equallizing of strength must be referred to the Judgment of the Operator. Now to the Work.
The Mortess to be made is in a Quarter four Inches broad. In this case Workmen make the Mortess an Inch wide, so that an Inch and an half Stuff remains on either side it. Therefore your Stuff being squar'd, as was taught in the last Section, set the Oval of the Gage an Inch and an half off the Tooth, and gage with it, on either side your Stuff, a straight line at that di⯑stance from the end you intend the Mortess shall be, then open your Compasses to two Inches, and prick off that distance in one of the Lines, for the length of the Mortess; then lay the in⯑side of the Handle of the Square to one side of the Stuff, and upon both the pricks successively, and with your Pricker draw straight Lines through them by the side of the Tongue, so shall the bounds of your Mortess be struck out on the Quar⯑ter. If your Mortess go through the Quarter, draw the same Lines on the opposite side of the Quarter thus, Turn the Quarter, or it. Edge, and apply the inside of the Handle of the Square, to the ends of the former drawn Lines, and by [86] the side of the Tongue draw two Lines on the edge of the Quarter; then turn the Quarter a⯑gain with its other broad side upwards, and ap⯑ply the inside of the Handle of the Square to the ends of the last Lines drawn on the edge, and by the side of the Tongue, draw two Lines on this broad side also. These two Lines (if your Quar⯑ter was truly squar'd) shall be exactly opposite to the two Lines drawn on the first broad side of the Quarter for the length of the Mortess: And for the width of the Mortess gage this side also, as you did the first; then for the Tennant, gage on that end of the Quarter you intend the Tennant shall be made, the same Lines you did for the Mortess. And because the Quarter is two In⯑ches thick, prick from the end two Inches, and applying the inside of the Handle of the Square to the side of the Quarter, and the Tongue to that Prick, draw by the side of the Tongue a Line through that side the Quarter; then turn the other sides of the Quarter successively, and draw Lines athwart each side the Quarter, as you were taught to draw the opposite Lines for the Mor⯑tress.
Then place the edge of the Inch-Mortess-Chis⯑sel with its Basil from you, and the Helve bear⯑ing a little towards you, within one half quarter of an Inch of one end of the struck Mortess, and with your Mallet knock hard upon it, till you find the Basil of the Chissel will no longer force the Chips out of the Mortess; then remove the Chis⯑sel to the other end of the Mortess, and work, as with the first end, till the Chips will void no lon⯑ger: Then work away the Stuff between the two Ends, and begin again at one of the Ends, and then at the other, and work deeper into the Mor⯑tess, then again between both; and so work deeper by degrees, till you have wrought the [87] Mortess through, or (if not through) to the in⯑tended Depth; then with the Mortess-chissel work nearer the drawn Lines at the ends of the Mortess, (for before you were directed to work but within half a quarter of an Inch of the drawn Lines,) by laying light blows on it, till you have made it fit to pare smooth with a narrow Paring-chissel, and then pare the ends, as you were taught to work with the Paring-chissel: Then with the broad Paring-chissel, pare the sides of the Mortess just to the struck Lines; so is the Mortess finished.
To work the Tennant, lay the other Quarter on edge upon your Work-bench, and fasten it with the Holdfast, as you were taught Sect. I. Then with the Tennant, saw a little without the Struck-line towards the end: You must not Saw just upon the Struck-line, because the Saw cuts rough: Besides, you must leave some Stuff to pare away smooth to the Struck-line, that the Stile (that is, the upright Quarter) may make a close Joint with the Rail (that is) the lower Quarter: Saw therefore right down with the Tennant-Saw, just almost to the gaged Lines for the thickness of the Tennant, and have a care to keep the Blade of the Saw exactly upright. Then turn the oppo⯑site Side of the Quarter upwards, and work as you were taught to work the first Side.
Then with the Paring-chissel, pare the Work close to the gaged Lines for the Tennant. Then try how it fits the Mortess: If it be not pared e⯑nough away, you must pare it where it bears, that is, sticks. But if you should chance to have made it too little, you have spoiled your Work: There⯑fore you may see how necessary it is, not to make the Mortess too wide at first, or the Tennant too narrow.
Then with the Piercer pierce two holes through the Sides, or Cheeks of the Mortess, about half an [88] Inch off either end one. Then knock the Tennant stiff into the Mortess, and set it upright, by ap⯑plying the Angle of the outer Square, to the An⯑gle the two Quarters make, and with your Prick⯑er, prick round about the insides of the Pierced holes upon the Tennant. Then take the Tennant out again, and Pierce two holes with the same Bit, about the thickness of a Shilling above the Pricked holes on the Tennant, that is, nearer the Sholder of the Tennant, that the Pins you are to drive in, may draw the Sholder of the Tennant the closer to the flat side of the Quarter the Mor⯑tess is made in. Then with the Paring-chissel make two Pins somewhat Tapering, full big e⯑nough, and setting the two Quarters again square, as before, drive the Pins stiff into the Pierced holes.
If you make another Square, as you did this; and make also a Tennant on each Un-tennanted end of the Stiles, and another Mortess on the top and bottom Rails, you may put them toge⯑ther, and make square Frames of them.
§. 18. Of the Miter Square. And its Use.
THe Miter Square marked E, hath (as the Square) an Handle marked a, one Inch thick, and three Inches broad, and a Tongue marked b, of about the same breadth: The Han⯑dle and the Tongue (as the Square) have both their Sides parallel to their own Sides. The Han⯑dle (as the Square) hath in the middle of its narrowest Side a Mortess in it, of an equal depth, the whole length of the Handle: Into this Mor⯑tess is fitted one end of the Tongue, but the end of the Handle is first Bereld off to make an An⯑gle of 45 Degrees with its inside. This Tongue is (as the Square) Pin'd and Glewed into the Mortese of the Handle.
[89]It is used for striking a Miter-line, as the Square is to strike a Square-line, by applying the inside of the Handle to the outside of the Quarter, or Batten, you are to work upon; and then by strik⯑ing a Line by the side of the Tongue: For that Line shall be a Miter-line. And if upon two Bat⯑tens you strike two such Lines, and Saw and Pare them just off in the Lines, when the flats of those two sawn ends are applied to one another, the out and inside of the Battens, will form them⯑selves into the Figure of a Square.
Thus Picture Frames, and looking Glass-frames, are commonly made, as by a more full Example you may see in the next Section.
§. 19. Of the Bevil.
AS the Square is made to strike an Angle of 90 Degrees, and the Miter an Angle of 45 Degrees, so the Bevil (marked F) having its Tongue movable upon a Center, may be set to strike Angles of any greater, or lesser numbers of Degrees, ac [...]ording as you open the Tongue wider from, or shut it closer to the Handle. It is used as the Square, and the Miter, and will per⯑form the Offices of them both, though it be not purposely made for either; but for the striking such Bevil-lines, as one part of your work must be cut away to, to make it join with another part of your Work: For Example,
We will propose to make a Frame for a Picture, Looking-glass. &c. containing eight straight Sides; You may quickly perceive that all the ends of these eight Sides must be cut to Bevils, and what Bevils they must be, you will find if you describe upon a smooth flat Board, a Circle of any bigness, but the larger the better: Divide this Circle in⯑to eight equal Parts, and from every point draw a Line to the Center: Draw also straight Lines [90] from every point to its next Point: Then lay the inside of the Handle of your Bevil exactly upon a⯑ny one of these straight Lines, so as the Angle made by the inside of the Handle, and the inside of the Tongue, lie exactly at the very Angle made by this straight Line, and the Semi-Diametral Line proceeding from the Center, and move the Tongue nearer, or farther off the Handle, till the inside of the Tongue and the inside of the Handle, lie exactly upon those two Lines, so shall your Be⯑vil be set.
Then having sitted your Pieces to your Scant⯑ling, stick your Pricker as near the outward Cor⯑ner of your Pieces as your Stuff will bear, and ap⯑ply the inside of your Handle also to the outer sides of your Pieces, and so as the inside of the Tongue may be drawn home to the Pricker. For then Lines drawn on those Pieces by the inside of the Tongue, shall be the Lines the Pieces must be cut in, to make these eight Pieces join evenly to⯑gether by the sides of each others Bevil: Then with the Strike-block smooth the ends of the Be⯑vils, as you were taught in the Section of the Strike-block.
If you have a Board on the back-side of this Frame, you may Glew the back-sides of these Pieces, piece by piece to the Board; but first you must fit them to an exact Compliance of every Be⯑vil with its Match, and when they are so fitted, drive two Nails close to the outside of every piece, but drive not the Nails deep into the Board, because when the Frame is set, and Glewed, or otherwise fastned, you must draw the Nails out again: For these Nails are only intended to serve for Fences to set, and fit each piece into its proper Place, before the whole Frame is fastned together. And should you not thus Fence them, though by your Eye you might judge you fitted the Bevils [91] exactly, yet one piece being never so little out of its due Position, would drive the next piece more out, and that the next, till at the last, the last piece would not join, but either be too short, or too long, or stand too much out, or in, or else too open, or too close on the out, or inside.
But if you have no Board on the backside, you must, when you Saw the Bevilling Angles upon the square ends of pieces, not sawn quite through the depth of one end of every piece, but about half way through the depth, or thickness, and then with your Chissel either split, or else pare, the up⯑per side of the square end flat away to the Bevil, and so leave part of the square end of your piece, to lap under the piece it is joined to. For Example,
In Fig. 3. Plate 5. ab is the square end of the piece, and bc is the Bevil you work the piece to. Therefore you must work away so much of the thickness of the square end, as is comprehended between a and c, so that you will see the Triangle abc, is to be wrought away half way down the thickness of the Stuff, and so will the Triangle abc be left for the other half thickness of the Stuff. But that end of the piece marked 1, which joins to the piece marked 2, must, upon its Bevil-stroak, be sawn quite off, and its underside must have the same Triangle wrought into it, just so fit as to re⯑ceive the Triangle in piece 2, and just so deep, as that when the Triangle on piece 2, is fitted into the Triangle in piece 1, the Superficies of both the pieces may be even with one another. And thus you may lap the ends of every piece into one an⯑other.
These Triangles at the ends of the pieces you may Glew into one another, but if you think Glewing alone not strong enough, you may Pierce an hole near the inner edge of the Frame, because the Triangle hath there most Substance of Stuff; [92] and afterwards Pin it, as you are taught to Pin the Rail and Stile together in Sect. 17.
This way of Lapping over, is sometimes used also for square Miters, or other Angular Frames.
§. 20. Of the Miter-Box.
THere is another way used by Joiners that make many Frames, to save themselves the labour of Drawing, or striking out of Squares, Miters, and several Bevils upon their Stuff: And this is with a Tool called a Miter-Box, described in Plate 5. Fig. 2. It is composed of two pieces of Wood, of an Inch thick each, as A the upright piece, B the bottom piece. The Upright piece is nailed upright, fast upon the bottom piece. And this up⯑right piece hath on its upper side the Miter Lines struck with the Miter Square, as de, on the left hand, and gh on the right hand: On these two Miter Lines the edge of the Saw is set, and a kerf made straight down the upright piece, as from de on the left hand to f, and from gh on the right hand to i. In like manner any other Bevil is struck upon the upper side of the upright piece with the Bevil, as kl on the left hand, and no on the right. On these two Bevil Lines the edge of the Saw is set, and a kerf made straight down the upright piece, as from k to lm, and from gh to i. You may make as many Bevils as you please on the up⯑right piece of the Miter Box; Bevils to join Frames of either five, six, seven, eight Sides, &c. and the manner to make them to any number of Sides, was in part taught in the last Section. For as there you were directed to divide the Circle in⯑to eight equal Parts, because eight was the num⯑ber of Sides, we proposed to make that Frame con⯑sist of; So, if for any number of Sides you divide the Circle into the same equal parts, and work as you were there directed, you may find what Be⯑vil [93] the pieces must have that make a Frame that consists of any number of Sides.
So also for Sawing of any Batten, or other small pieces square: Strike at the Point a, on the upper side of the upright piece a line straight athwart it, to b, and Saw straight down the upper piece, to c.
The manner how these Kerfs are sawn straight down with greatest certainty is, thus, Apply the inside of the Handle of the square to the upper side of the upright piece, so as the Tongue lie close to that end of the Miter, Bevil, or square Line struck through the upper side of the Miter-Box, and with the Pricker strike a Line close by the side of the Tongue, through that side of the upright piece; Turn the Tongue to the other side of the upright piece, and apply the inside of the Handle of the square to the other end of the Mi⯑ter, Bevil, or Square Line, and with the Pricker strike also a Line close by the side of the Tongue through that side the upright piece. These two Lines struck on either side of the upright piece, shall be a Line on each side in which the edge of the Saw must run, to saw it straight down.
§. 21. Of the Gage.
THe Gage marked G (in Plate 4) The Oval b is fitted stiff upon the Staff c, that it may be set nearer or farther from the Tooth a. Its Office is to Gage a Line parallel to any straight side. It is used for Gaging Tennants, and for Gaging Stuff to an equal thickness.
When you use it, you must set the Oval to the intended Distance from the Tooth: If the Oval stand too near the Tooth, Hold the Oval in your right hand, and knock the hinder end of the Staff upon the Work-bench, till it remove to its just Distance from the Tooth: If it stand too far off the [94] Tooth, knock the fore end of the Staff (viz. the Tooth end) till it remove to its just Distance from the Tooth: If the Oval slide not stiff enough upon the Staff, you may stiffen it by striking a wooden Wedge between the Mortess and the Staff: So may you apply the side of the Oval next the Tooth, to the side of any Table, or any o⯑ther straight side, with the Tooth Gage a Line parallel (or of equal Distance) all the way from that side.
§. 22. Of the Piercer.
THe Piercer H, in Plate 4, hath a the Head, b the Pad, c the Stock, d the Bitt. Its Office is so well known, that I need say little to it. On⯑ly, you must take care to keep the Bitt straight to the hole you pierce, lest you deform the hole, or break the Bitt.
You ought to be provided with Bitts of several sizes, fitted into so many Padds.
§. 23. Of the Gimblet.
THe Gimblet is marked I, in Plate 4. It hath a Worm at the end of its Bitt. Its Office is to make a round hole in those places of your work where the Stock of the Piercer by reason of its own Sholder, or a Sholder, or Butting out upon the work will not turn about. Its Handle is held in a clutched hand, and its Bitt twisted stiff into your work. You must have them of several sizes.
§. 24. Of the Augre.
THe Augre marked K in Plate 4, hath aa the Handle, b the Bitt. Its Office is to make great round holes. When you use it, the Stuff you work upon is commonly laid low under you, that you may the easier use your strength upon it: For in twisting the Bitt about by the force of both your [95] Hands, on each end of the Handle one, it cuts great Chips out of the Stuff. You must bear your strength Perpendicularly straight to the end of the Bitt; as with the Piercer.
§. 25. Of the Hatchet.
THe Hatchet marked L, in Plate 4. Its use is so well known (even to the most un-intelligent) that I need not use many Words on it, yet thus much I will say, Its use is to Hew the Irregularities off such pieces of Stuff which may be sooner Hewn than Sawn.
When the Edge is downwards, and the Handle towards you, the right side of its Edge must be Ground to a Bevil, so as to make an Angle of a⯑bout 12 Degrees with the left side of it: And af⯑terwards set with the Whetstone, as the Irons of Planes, &c.
§. 26. The Use of the Saw in general.
IN my former Exercises, I did not teach you how to chuse the Tools a Smith was to use; Be⯑cause it is a Smith's Office to make them: And be⯑cause in those Exercises I treated of making Iron-work, and Steel-work in general, and the making and excellency of some Tools in particular, which might serve as a general Notion for the Know⯑ledge of all Smith's Workmanship, especially to those that should concern themselves with Smith⯑ing: But to those that shall concern themselves with Joinery, and not with Smithing; It will be necessary that I teach them how to chuse their Tools that are made by Smiths, that they may use them with more ease and delight, and make both quicker and nearer Work with them.
All sorts of Saws, for Joiner's Use, are to be sold in most Iron-monger's Shops, but especially in Foster-lane, London; Chuse those that are made [96] of Steel, (for some are made of Iron) for Steel of it self is harder and stronger than Iron: You may know the Steel-Saws from Iron-Saws thus, The Steel-Saws are generally ground bright and smooth, and are (the thickness of the Blade con⯑sidered) stronger than Iron-Saws: But the Iron-Saws are only Hammer-hardned, and therefore if they could be so hard, yet they cannot be so smooth, as if the Irregularities of the Hammer were well taken off with the Grindstone: See it be free from flaws, and very well Hammered, and smoothly Ground, (that is, evenly Ground,) you may know if it be well Hammered by the stiff ben⯑ding of it, and if it be well Ground, (that is, e⯑venly Ground,) it will not bend in one part of it more than in another; for if it do, it is a sign that part were it bends most is, either too much Ground away, or too thin Forged in that place: But if it bend into a regular bow all the way, and be stiff, the Blade is good: It cannot be too stiff, because they are but Hammer-hardned. and there⯑fore often bow when they fall under unskilful Hands, but never break, unless they have been of⯑ten bowed in that place. The Edge whereon the Teeth are, is always made thicker than the Back, because the Back follows the Edge, and if the Edge should not make a pretty wide Kerf, if the Back do not strike in the Kerf, yet by never so little irregular bearing, or twisting of the Hand awry, it might so stop, as to bow the Saw; and (as I said before) with often bowing it will break at last. When Workmen light of a good Blade thus qualified, they matter not much whether the Teeth be sharp or deep, or set to their mind: For to make them so, is a Task they take to them⯑selves: And thus they perform it: They wedge the Blade of the Saw hard into the Whetting-Block, marked P, in Plate 4. with the Handle to⯑wards [97] their left Hand, and the end of the Saw to the right, then with a three-square File they be⯑gin at the left hand end, leaning harder upon the side of the File on the right Hand, than on that side to the left Hand; so that they File the upper⯑side of the Tooth of the Saw a-slope towards the right Hand, and the underside of the Tooth a lit⯑tle a-slope towards the left, or, almost down⯑right. Having filed one Tooth thus, all the rest must be so filed. Then with the Saw-wrest, mark⯑ed O, in Plate 4. they set the Teeth of the Saw: That is, they put one of the Notches marked aaa of the Wrest between the first two Teeth on the Blade of the Saw, and then turn the Handle Ho⯑rizontally a little about upon the Notch towards the end of the Saw; and that at once turns the first Tooth somewhat towards you, and the se⯑cond Tooth from you: Then skipping two Teeth, they again put one of the Notches of the Wrest be⯑tween the third and fourth Teeth on the Blade of the Saw, and then (as before) turn the Handle a little about upon the Notch towards the end of the Saw, and that turns the third Tooth some⯑what towards you, and the fourth somewhat from you: Thus you must skip two Teeth at a time, and turn the Wrest till all the Teeth of the Saw are set. This Setting of the Teeth of the Saw (as Work⯑men call it) is to make the Kerf wide enough for the Back to follow the Edge: And is Set Ranker for soft, course, cheap Stuff, than for hard, fine, and costly Stuff: For the Ranker the Tooth is set, the more Stuff is wasted in the Kerf: And besides, if the Stuff be hard it will require greater Labour to tear away a great deal of hard Stuff, than it will do to tear away but a little of the same Stuff.
The Pit Saw, is Set so Rank for course Stuff, as to make a Kerf of almost a quarter of an Inch, but for fine and costly Stuff they set it finer to save [98] Stuff. The Whip-Saw is set somewhat finer than the Pit-Saw; the Hand-Saw, and the Compass-Saw, finer than the Whip-Saw; but the Tennant-Saw, Frame-Saw, and the Bow-Saw, &c. are set fine, and have their Teeth but very little turned over the Sides of their Blades: So that a Kerf made by them, is seldom above half a half quarter of an Inch.
The reason why the Teeth are filed to an An⯑gle, pointing towards the end of the Saw, and not towards the Handle of the Saw, or directly straight between the Handle and end of the Saw, is, Be⯑cause the Saw is designed to cut only in its Progress forwards; Man having in that Activity more strength to rid, and Command of his Hands to guide his Work, than he can have in drawing back his Saw, and therefore when he draws back his Saw, the Work-man bears it lightly off the un⯑sawn Stuff; which is an ease to his Labour, and enables him the longer to continue his several Pro⯑gressions of the Saw.
Master-Workmen, when they direct any of their Underlins to saw such a piece of Stuff, have seve⯑ral Phrases for the sawing of it: They seldom say Saw that piece of Stuff; But Draw the Saw through it; Give that piece of Stuff a Kerf; Lay a Kerf in that piece of Stuff; and sometimes, (but most un⯑properly,) Cut, or Slit that piece of Stuff: For the Saw cannot properly be said to cut, or slit the Stuff; but it rather breaks, or tears away such parts of the Stuff from the whole, as the points of the Teeth prick into, and these parts it so tears away are proportionable to the fineness, or rank⯑ness of the setting of the Teeth.
The Excellency of Sawing is, to keep the Kerf exactly in the Line marked out to be sawn, with⯑out wriggling on either, or both sides; And straight through the Stuff, as Work-men call it; [99] that is, in a Geometrical Term, perpendicular through the upper and under side, if your Work require it, as most Work does: But if your Work be to be Sawn upon a Bevil, as some Work some⯑times is, then you are to observe that Bevil all the length of the Stuff, &c.
§. 27. The Use of the Pit-Saw, marked M, in Plate 4.
THe Pit-Saw is not only used by those Work⯑men that make sawing Timber and Boards their whole Business, but is also for small matters used by Joiners, when what they have to do, may perhaps be as soon done at home, as they can car⯑ry or send it to the Sawyers. The manner of their working is both alike, for if it be a Board they would slit off a piece of Timber, or if they would take any Square, Quarter, or Batten, &c. off, they first set off their Scantlin: For Example, If it be an Inch (or more, or less) they would take off a piece of Stuff, they open the Points of their Compasses to an Inch Measure on their Rule, and so much more as they reckon the Kerf of the Saw will make, and from on side of their Stuff they set off at either end of the Stuff, the Distance of the points of their Compasses; at this Distance there⯑fore they make with the points of their Compasses a prick at either end of the Stuff; Then with Chalk they whiten a Line, by rubbing the Chalk pretty hard upon it; Then one holds the Line at one end upon the prick made there, and the other strains the Line pretty stiff upon the prick at the other end; then whilst the Line is thus strain'd, one of them between his Finger and Thumb draws the middle of the Line directly upright, to a con⯑venient height (that it may spring hard enough down) and then lets it go again, so that it swift⯑ly applies to its first Position, and strikes so strongly against the Stuff, that the Dust, or At⯑toms [100] of the Chalk that were rubbed into the Line, shake out of it, and remain upon the Stuff. And thus also they mark the under side of their Stuff: This is called Lining of the Stuff: And the Stuff cut into those Lines shall be called Inch-Stuff, because the Compasses that prickt the Stuff, were opened wider by the width of the Kerf than an Inch Measure upon the Rule: But had the Compasses been opened but an Inch exactly, that piece Sawn off should, in Workmen's Language, have been called In [...]h-prickt, thereby giving to un⯑derstand that it half the breadth of the Kerf thinner than an Inch: And thus they call all o⯑ther Scantlins 2 Inches, 2 ½ Inches, 3 Inches, &c. Sawn, or Pricked.
When two Work-men are not at hand to hold the Line at both ends, he that Lines it, strikes one point of his Compass, or sometimes a Pricker, or a Nail aslope towards that end into the prick set off, and putting the Noose at the end of his Line over his Compasses, &c. goes to the other end, and strains his Line on that prick, and strikes it as before.
The Stuff being thus lined is fastned with wedges over the Pit, (if the Joiner be accommo⯑dated with a Pit) if he have none, he makes shift with two high Frames a little more than Man high in its stead, (called great Trussels) with four Legs, these Legs stand spreading outwards, that they may stand the firmer: Over these two Trus⯑sels the Stuff is laid, and firmly fastned that it shake not. Its outer side from whence the Pricks were set off must be Perpendiculer, which you must try by a Plumb-line, for should the top edge of that side, hang never so little over the bottom edge, or the bottom edge not lie so far out as the top edge, the Scantlin you saw off would not be of an equal thickness on the Top or Bottom: Be⯑cause [101] the Saw is to work exactly Perpendicular. Then with the Pit-Saw they enter the one end of the Stuff, the Top-man at the Top, and the Pit-man under him: The Top-man observing to guide the Saw exactly in the Line: And withal draw⯑ing the Saw somewhat towards him when the Saw goes down; and the Pit-man drawing it with all his strength Perpendicularly down; but not so low that the upper and lower Handles of the Saw sink below both their Managements: Then bearing the Teeth of the Saw a little off the Stuff, the Top-man draws the Saw up again, and the Pit-man assists, or eases him in it, and thus they continue sawing on till the Saw has run through the whole length upon the Stuff. But when the Kerf is made so long, that by the working of the Saw the pieces of Stuff on either side will shake against one another, and so more, or less, hinder the easie Progress of the Saw, they drive a Wedge so far in the Kerf as they dare do for fear of splitting the Stuff, and so provide the Saw freer and easier Passage through the Stuff: This Wedging they continue so oft as they find occasion.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
Continued in the Art of JOINERY.
[102]§. 28. The Use of the Whip-Saw, marked N in Plate 4.
THE Whip-Saw is used by Joiners, to saw such greater pieces of Stuff that the Hand-Saw will not easily reach through; when they use it, the Stuff is laid upon the Trussel, marked O in Plate 5. in the Angles of it. Then two Men takes each an Han⯑dle of the Saw; He to whom the Teeth of the Saw points, drawing to him, and the other thrust⯑ing from him: And (as before) the Saw having run its length, is lifted gently over the Stuff to recover another stroak of the Saw.
§. 29. The Use of the Hand-Saw marked D, the Frame or Bow-Saw, the Tennant-Saw, marked O in Plate 4.
THese Saws are accommodated for a single Man's Use, and cut forward as the other Saws do. The Office of the Checks made to the Frame-Saw is, by the twisted Cord and Tongue in the middle, to draw the upper ends of the Cheeks closer together, that the lower end of the Cheeks []
[figure]
[103] may be drawn the wider asunder, and strain the Blade of the Saw the straighter. The Tennant-Saw, being thin, hath a Back to keep it from bending.
§. 30. The Use of the Compass-Saw, marked Q in Plate 4.
THe Compass-Saw should not have its Teeth Set, as other Saws have; but the edge of it should be made so broad, and the back so thin, that it may easily follow the broad edge, without having its Teeth Set; for if the Teeth be Set, the Blade must be thin, or else the Teeth will not bow over the Blade, and if it be thin, (consider⯑ing the Blade is so narrow) it will not be strong enough to abide [...]ough Work, but at never so lit⯑tle an irregular thrust, will bow, and at last break; yet for cheapness, they are many times made so thin that the Teeth require a setting. Its Office is to cut a round, or any other Compass kerf; and therefore the edge must be made broad, and the back thin, that the Back may have a wide kerf to turn in.
§. 31. Of the Rule marked D in Plate 5.
THe use of the Rule is to measure Feet, Inches, and parts of Inches, which for that Purpose, are marked upon the flat and smooth sides of the Rule, and numbred with Inches, and hath every Inch divided into two halfs, and every half into two quarters, and every quarter into two half-quarters; so that every Inch is divided into eight equal parts; And these Inches are numbred from one end of the Rule to the other; which common⯑ly is in all 24 Inches: Which is a Two-Foot Rule.
They have commonly both Board and Timber-measure, &c. marked upon them, for the finding both the superficial and solid Content of Board or [104] Timber: The use of which Lines and Tables ha⯑vin been often taught by others, and being more Mathematical than Mechanical, is unproper for me to meddle with in this Place: But rather to refer to those Books.
But the manual Use of it is, either to measure length with it, or to draw a straight Line by the side of it, or to Try the straightness or flatness of their Work with. They Try their Work by applying one of its Edges to the flat of the wrought side of their Work, and bring their Eye as close as they can, to see if they can see light between the edge of the Rule and their Work: If they cannot, they conclude their Work is Try, and well wrought.
§. 32. Of the Compasses marked E in Plate 5.
aa THe Joint, bb the Cheeks of the Joint, cc the Shanks, dd the Points. Their Office is to describe Circles, and set off Distances from their Rule, or any other Measure, to their Work.
§. 33. Of the Glew-pot marked F in Plate 5.
THe Glew-pot is commonly made of good thick Lead, that by its Substance it may retain a heat the longer, that the Glew Chill not (as Work-men say when it cools) when it is to be used.
§. 34. Of Chusing and Boiling Glew.
THe clearest, driest, and most transparent Glew is the best: When you boil it, break it with your Hammer into small pieces, and put it into a clean Skillet, or Pipkin, by no means greasie, for that will spoil the Clamminess of the Glew, put to it so much Water as is convenient to dissolve the Glew, and to make it, when it is hot, about the thickness of the White of an Egg: [105] The quantity of Water cannot be assigned, because of the different Quality there is in Glew: Keep it stirring whilst it is melting, and let it not stick to the sides or bottom of the Vessel: When it is well boiled, pour it into your Glew-pot to use, but let your Glew-pot be very clean. When it is cold, and you would heat it again in your Glew-pot, you must take great care that it burn not to the sides or bottom of the Glew-pot, for that burning either turns to a thick hard skin, or else to a burnt Cinder-like Substance, which if it mingle with the Glew, will spoil it all; because by its Substance it will bear the two Joints you are to Glew together, off each other.
When (with often heating) the Glew grows too thick, you may put more Water to it; but then you must make it very hot, lest the Glew and Water do not wholly incorporate.
Some Joiners will (when their Glew is too thick, put Small-Beer into it, thinking it streng⯑thens it: I have tried it, and could never find it so, but think it makes the Glew weaker, especial⯑ly if the Small-Bear chance to be new, and its Yest not well settled from it, or so stale, that it be either Draggy, or any whit mingled with the Settlings of the Cask.
§. 35. Of using the Glew.
YOur Glew must be very warm, for then it is thinnest, and as it chills, it thickens: With a small Brush you must smear the Glew well upon the Joint of each piece you are to Glew together; And before you set them as they are to stand, you must jostle them one upon the other, that the Glew may very well touch and take hold of the Wood; and that the Glew on each Joints may well incorporate. Then fit the two Joints as they must stand; And when you set them by to dry, [106] let the one stand upright upon the other; For if they stand a-slope, the weight of the Stuff when it leans upon two extream Edges, may make one end of the Joint Open.
§. 36. Of the Waving Engine.
THe Waving Engine discribed in Plate 5. Fig. 7. Hath A B a long square Plank, of about se⯑ven Inches broad, five Foot long, and an Inch and half thick: All along the length of this Plank, on the middle between the two sides, runs a Rabbet, as part of it is seen at C: Upon this Rabbet rides a Block with a Groove in its under side: This Block is about three Inches square, and ten Inches long, having near the hinder end of it a wooden Handle going through it, of about one Inch Diameter, as DE: At the Fore-end of this Block is fastned a Vice, somewhat larger than a great Hand-Vice, as at F: The Groove in the Block is made fit to re⯑ceive the Rabbet on the Plank.
At the farther end of the Plank is erected a square strong piece of Wood, about six Inches high, and five Inches square, as G. This square piece hath a square wide Mortess in it on the Top, as at H. Upon the top of this square piece is a strong square flat Iron Coller, somewhat loos⯑ly fitted on, having two Male Screws fitted into two Female Screws, to screw against that part of the wooden Piece un-mortessed at the Top, mark⯑ed L, that it may draw the Iron Coller hard a⯑gainst the Iron marked Q, and keep it stiff against the fore-side of the un-mortessed Piece, marked L, when the piece Q, is set to its convenient heighth; and on the other side the square wooden Piece is fitted another Iron screw, having to the end of its shank fastned a round Iron Plate which lies within the hollow of this wooden piece, and therefore cannot in Draft be seen in its proper [107] place; But I have described it a part, as at M. (Fig. 9.) Its Nut is placed at M, on the wooden Piece. On the farther side of the wooden Piece is fitted a wooden Screw called a Knob, as at N. Through the farther and hither side of the square wooden Piece is fitted a flat Piece of Iron, about three quarters of an Inch broad, and one quarter of an Inch thick, standing on edge upon the Plank; but its upper edge is filed round: (the reason you will find by and by:) Its hither end comes through the wooden Piece, as at O, and its farther end on the opposite side of the wooden Piece.
Upright in the hollow square of the wooden Piece stands an Iron, as at Q, whose lower end is cut into the form of the Molding you intend your work shall have.
In the fore side of this wooden Piece is a square hole, as at R, called the Mouth.
To this Engine belongs a thin flat piece of hard Wood, about an Inch and a quarter broad, and as long as the Rabbet: It is disjunct from the En⯑gine, and in Fig. 8. is marked SS, called the Rack: It hath its under flat cut into those fashioned Waves you intend your Work shall have: The hollow of these Waves are made to comply with the round edge of flat Plate of Iron marked O (de⯑scribed before) for when one end of the Riglet you wave, is, with the Vice, screwed to the plain side of the Rack, and the other end put through the Mouth of the wooden Piece, as at TT, so as the hollow of the Wave on the under side of the Rack may lie upon the round edge of the flat Iron Plate set on edge, as at O, and the Iron Q, is strong sitted down upon the Reglet: Then if you lay hold of the Handles of the Block DE, and strongly draw by them, the Rack and the Riglet will both together slide through the Mouth of the wooden Piece: And as the Rounds of the Rack [108] rid over the round edge of the flat Iron, the Rack and Reglet will mount up to the Iron Q, and as the Rounds of the Waves on the under side of the Rack slides off the Iron on edge, the Rack and Reglet will sink, and so in a Progression (or more) the Riglet will on its upper side receive the Form of the several Waves on the under side of the Rack, and also the Form, or Molding, that is on the edge of the bottom of the Iron, and so at once the Riglet will be both molded and waved.
But before you draw the Rack through the En⯑gine, you must consider the Office of the Knob N, and the Office of the Iron Screw M; For by them the Rack is screwed evenly under the Iron Q. And you must be careful that the Groove of the Block slip not off the Rabbet on the Plank: For by these Screws, and the Rabbet and Groove, your work will be evenly gaged all the way (as I said before) under the edge of the Iron Q, and keep it from sliding either to the right, or left Hand, as you draw it through the Engine.
§. 37. Of Wainscoting Rooms.
AAA (in Plate 7.) The Stiles. B The Base. C The Lower Rail. D The Sur-Base. EE The Middle Rail, or Rails. F The Friese Rail. G The Upper Rail. H The Cornice. I The Lying Pan⯑nel. K The Large Pannel. L The Friese Pannel.
In Wainscoting of Rooms there is, for the most part, but two heights of Pannels used; unless the Room to be Wainscoting be above ten foot high, as some are eleven or twelve Foot high, and then three Heighths of Pannels are used: As I The Ly⯑ing Pannel, above the Base. K The Large Pannel above the Middle Rail: And L The Friese Pannel above the Friese Rail.
The Friese Rail is to have the same breadth the Margent of the Stile hath; The Middle Rail hath [] commonly two breadths of the Margent of the Stile, viz. one breadth above the Sur-base, and the o⯑ther below the Sur-base. And the Upper and Low⯑er Rails have also each the same breadth with the Margent of the Stile.
Those Moldings above the Prickt Line on the Top, as H, are called the Cornice.
Sometimes (and especially in low Rooms) there is no Base or Sur-base used, and then the Mid⯑dle and Lower Rail need not be so broad: For the Middle Rail need not be above a third part more than the Margent of the Rail: and the Lower Rail you may make of what breadth you see conveni⯑ent: They are commonly about three Inches and an half, or four Inches broad, yet this is no Rule: For sometimes Workmen make only a flat Plinth serve.
You may (if you will) adorn the outer edges of the Stiles and Rails with a small Molding: And you may (if you will) Bevil away the outer edges of the Pannels, and leave a Table in the middle of the Pannel.
An Explanation of Terms used among Joiners
WHen I first began to Print these Exercises, I marked some Terms in Joinery with supe⯑riour Letters (as Printers call them) thus abc &c. intending, at the latter end of these Exercises, to have explained the Terms those Letters referr'd to: But upon consideration that those Terms might often be used in this Discourse, when the Superiour Letter was out of sight, and perhaps its Position (where) forgotten; I have changed my Mind, and left out the Superiour Letters beyond fol. 66. and instead of those References give you this Alphabetical Table of Terms, by which you may always more readily find the Explanation, though you often meet with the Term.
[110]A.
- Architrave. See Plate 6. l. is the Architrave Mol⯑ding.
- Augre § 24. Plate 4. fig. K.
B.
- Base. See Plate 6. h. And Plate 7. B.
- Bead. See Plate 6. a.
- Bed-molding. See Plate 6. d.
- Basil. The Basil is an Angle the edge of a Tool is ground away to. See fol. 71.
- Batten. Is a Scantling of Stuff either two, three or four Inches broad; and is seldom above an Inch thick: and the length unlimmitted.
- Beak. The end of the Hold-fast. See fol. 60, 61.
- Bench-screw. See Plate 4. A g. and fol. 60.
- Bevil. Any sloping Angle that is not a square, is called a Bevil. See fol. 60. 85. § 19. and Plate 4. F.
- Bitt. See § 22.
- Bow saw. Plate 4. O.
C.
- Capital. See Plate 6. g.
- Cast. Stuff is said to Cast, or Warp, when by its own Droughth or Moisture, or the Droughth or Moisture of the Air, or other Accident, it al⯑ters its flatness and straightness
- Clamp. When a piece of Board is fitted with the Grain to the end of another piece of Board cross the Grain the first Board is Clampt. Thus the ends of Tables are commonly Clampt to preserve them from warping.
- Compass-saw. See fol. 9. and Plate 4. fig. R.
- Cornice. See Plate 6. q. and Plate 7. H.
- Cross-grain'd-stuff. Stuff is Cross-grain'd when [...] Bough or some Branch shoots out on that part of [111] the Trunk of the Tree; For the Bough or Branch shooting forwards, the Grain of that branch shoots forwards also, and so runs a-cross the Grain of the Trunk; and if they be well grown toge⯑ther, it will scarce be perceived in some stuff, but in working; yet in Deal-boards, those Boughs or Branches are Knots, and easily perceiv'd, and if it grew up young with the Trunk, then instead of a Knot you will find a Curling in the Stuff when it is wrought.
- Curling-stuff. If the Bough or Branch that shoots out of the Trunk of a Tree be large, and the stuff in that place sawn somewhat a-slope, when that sttuff comes under the Plane you will find a Turn⯑ing about or Curling on that place upon the stuff; and in a straight progress of the Plane the Iron will cut with, and suddenly a-cross the Grain, and that more or less as the Bough grew in the Youth of the Tree, or grew more or less upright, or else sloping to the Trunk, or was sawn so. Such stuff therefore is called Curling-stuff.
D.
- Door-case. Is the Fram'd work about the Door.
- Double-Screw. See fol. 60. Plate 4. fig. g. on the Work-bench A.
F.
- Facia. See Plate 6. h.
- Fence. See § 8. Use of the Plow, and Plate 4. fig. B 6.
- Fine-set. The Irons of Planes are set Fine, or Rank. They are set Fine, when they stand so shallow below the sole of the Plane, that in work⯑ing they take off a thin shaving. See § 3.
- Flat Friese. See Plate 6. p.
- Fore-Plane. See § 2. and Plate 4. B 1.
- Former. See § 10. and Plate 4. C 1. C 3.
- [112] Frame. See fol. 59, 60.
- Frame Saw. See § 28. and Plate 4. O.
- Free-stuff. See §. 3.
- Friese. See Plate 6. p.
- Friese Pannel. See Plate 7. L.
- Friese Rail. See Plate 7. F.
- Frowy stuff. See § 3.
G.
- Gage. See § 21. and Plate 4. G.
- Gimblet. See § 23. and Plate 4. I.
- Gouge. See § 14. C 6.
- Groove. See fol. 69.
H.
- Hammer-hard. See Numb. I. fol. 58.
- Handle. See § 15. and Plate 4. D a.
- Hard Stuff. See § 3.
- Hatchet. See § 25. Plate 4. L.
- Head. See § 22. Plate 4. H a.
- Hold-fast. See § 1. Plate 4. H d.
- Hook. See § 1. Plate 4. A b.
- Husk. See Plate 6. n.
I.
- Inner-square. See § 15. and Plate 4. D d.
- Joint. See fol. 59.
- Jointer. See § 4. and Plate 4. B 2.
- Iron. See § 2. and Plate 4. B 1 d.
K.
- Kerf. The Sawn-away slit between two pieces of stuff is called a Kerf. See fol. 95.
- Knob. See § 36. fol. 104. and Plate 5. fig. 7. N.
- Knot. See Plate 6. o.
L▪
- Large Pannel. See Plate 7. K.
- [113] Lying Pannel. See Plate 7. I.
- Lower Rail. See Plate 7. H.
M.
- Margent. See Plate 7. at AAA the flat breadth of the Stiles besides the Moldings, is called the Margent of the Stiles.
- Middle Rail. See Plate 7. EE.
- Miter. See fol. 64.
- Miter Box. See § 20. and Plate 5. fig. 1.
- Miter square. See § 18. and Plate 4. E.
- Moldings. The several wrought-work made with Planes on Wood, is called Moldings. See Plate 6.
- Molding Planes. See § 9.
- Mortess. Is a square hole cut in a piece of stuff, to entertain a Tennant fit to it. See § 17.
- Mortess Chissel. See § 13. and Plate 4. C 5.
- Mouth. See § 2. B 7. a The Mouth.
O.
- Ogee. See Plate 6. c.
- Oval. See § 21. and Plate 4. G. b.
- Outer Square. See § 15. and Plate 4. D c.
P.
- Pad. See § 22. and Plate 4. H b.
- Pannel. In Plate 7. IKL are Pannels, but distin⯑guished by their Positions.
- Pare. The smooth cutting with the Paring-Chis⯑sel is called Paring.
- Paring-Chissel. See § 11. and Plate 4. C 2.
- Plaister. See Plate 6. f.
- Peircer. See § 22. and Plate 4. H.
- Pit-man The Saywer that works in the Pit, is called the Pit-man.
- Pit-Saw. The Pit-saw is a great Saw fitted into a square Frame; as in Plate 4. M is a Pit-saw.
- [114] Planchier. In Plate 6. between d and e is the Planchier.
- Plinth. See Plate 6.
- Plow. See § 8. and Plate 4. B 6.
- Pricker. Is vulgarly called an Awl: Yet for Join⯑ers Use it hath most commonly a square blade, which enters the Wood better than a round blade will; because the square Angle in turning it a⯑bout breaks the Grain, and so the Wood is in less danger of splitting.
R.
- Rabbet. See § 7.
- Rabbet Plane. See § 7. and Plate 4. B 5.
- Rack. See Plate 5. fig. 8. Read § 36.
- Rail. See Plate 7. AAA.
- Rank. The Iron of a Plane is said to be set Rank, when its edge stands so flat below the Sole of the Plane, that in working it will take off a thick shaving. See § 3.
- Rank-set. See Rank.
- Range. The side of any Work that runs straight, without breaking into Angles, is said to run Range: Thus the Rails and Pannels of one straight side of Wainscoting is said to run Range.
- Return. The side that falls away from the fore⯑side of any Straight or Rank-work, is called the Return.
- Riglet. Is a flat thin square piece of Wood: Thus the pieces that are intended to make the Frames for small Pictures, &c. before they are Molded are called Riglets.
S.
- Saw-wrest. See § 26. fol. 97. and Plate 4. O.
- Scantlin. The size that your stuff is intended to be cut to.
- [115] Scribe. When Joiners are to fit a side of a piece of Stuff against the side of some other piece of Stuff, and the side of the piece of Stuff they are to fit to is not regular; To make these two pieces of Stuff join close together all the way, they Scribe it, (as they phrase it,) thus; They lay the piece of Stuff they intend to Scribe close a⯑gainst the other piece of Stuff they intend to Scribe to, and open their Compasses to the widest Distance, these two pieces of Stuff bear off each other: Then (the Compasses moving stiff in their Joint) they bear the point of one of the shanks a⯑gainst the side they intend to Scribe to, and with the point of the other shank they draw a Line up⯑on the Stuff to be Scribed; and then the points of the Compasses remaining unremov'd, and your Hand carried even along by the side of the piece to be Scribed to, that Line Scribed upon the piece intended to be Scribed, shall be parallel to the irregular side intended to be Scribed to: And if you work away your Stuff exactly to that Line, when these two pieces are put together, they shall seem a Joint.
- Shoot a Joint. See fol. 63.
- Skew-former. See § 12. and Plate 4. C 4.
- Smoothing Plane. See § 6. and Plate 4. B 4.
- Sole. See Plate 4. B 7. bab. The under side of a Plane is called the Sole.
- Square. See § 15. and Plate 4. D.
- Staff. See § 21. and Plate 4. G c.
- Staves. See § 8. and Plate 4. B 6. aa.
- Stile. The upright Pieces AA in Pl. 7. are Stiles.
- Stock. See § 22. and Plate 4. H c.
- Stops. In Plate 6. kk are Stops.
- Stuff. The Wood that Joiners work upon they call in general Stuff.
- Sur-base. In Plate 7. D is the Sur-base.
- Swelling-Friese. In Plate 6. r is the Swelling-friese.
[116]T.
- Table. In Plate 6. f is the Table.
- Taper. All sorts of Stuff or Work that is smal⯑ler at one end than at the other, and diminishes gradually from the biggest end, is said to be Taper.
- Tennant. Is a square end fitted into a Mortess. See § 17.
- Tennant-Saw. In Plate 4. O. would be a Ten⯑nant-saw, were the flat of the Blade turned where the edge there stands.
- Tongue. See § 16. and Plate 4. D b.
- Tooth. See § 21. and Plate 4. G a.
- Top-man. Of the two Sawyers, the uppermost is called the Top-man.
- Tote. See § 2. and Plate 4. B 1 a.
- Traverse. See fol. 69.
- Trussel. See fol. 100. and Plate 5. Fig. 3.
- Try. See § 13.
V.
- Vaws-Cornice. See Plate 6. e.
- Vpper Cornice. See Plate 6. t.
W.
- Warp. The same that Cast is.
- Waving Engine. See § 46. and Plate 5.
- Wedge. See § 2. and Plate 4. B 1. c.
- Whetting-Block. See Plate 4. P.
- Whip-Saw. See Plate 4. N.
- Wrest. See § 26. and Plate 4. Q.
Thus much of Joinery. The next Exercises will be of Carpentry.
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
Applied to the ART of House-Carpentry.
[117]BEING now come to exercise upon the Carpenters Trade, it may be expected, by some, that I should insist upon Archi⯑tecture, it being so absolutely necessary for Builders to be acquainted with: But my An⯑swer to them is, that there are so many Books of Architecture extant, and in them the Rules so well, so copiously, and so compleatly handled, that it is needless for me to say any thing of that Science: Nor do I think any Man that should, can do more than Collect out of their Books, and perhaps de⯑liver their Meanings in his own Words. Besides, Architecture is a Mathematical Science, and there⯑fore different from my present Undertakings, which are (as by my Title) Mechanick Exer⯑cises: yet because Books of Architecture are as necessary for a Builder to understand, as the use of Tools; and lest some Builders should not know how to enquire for them, I shall at the latter end of Carpentry give you the Names of some Authors, especially such as are Printed in the English Tongue.
Some may perhaps also think it had been more proper for me in these Exercises to have introdu⯑ced Carpentry before Joinery, because Necessity, (the Mother of Invention) did doubtless compel [118] our Fore-fathers in the beginning to use the con⯑veniency of the first, rather than the extrava⯑gancy of the last. I confess, I considered it my self, and had in my own Reason been persuaded to it. but that I also considered that the Rules they both work by are upon the matter in the same, in Saw⯑ing, Mortessing, Tenanting, Scribing, Paring, Plain⯑ing, Moulding, &c. and likewise the Tools they work with the same, though some of them some⯑what stronger for Carpenter's Use than they need be for Joiner's; because Joiners work more curi⯑ously, and observe the Rules more exactly than Carpenters need do. And therefore I say it was, that I began with Joinery before Carpentry; for he that knows how to work curiously, may, when he lists, work slightly; when as they that are taught to work more roughly, do with greater difficulty perform the curious and nice work. Thus we see Joiners Work their Tables exactly flat and smooth, and shoot their Joint so true, that the whole Table shews all one piece: But the Floors Carpenters lay are also by Rule of Car⯑pentry to be laid flat and true, and shall yet be well enough laid, though not so exactly flat and smooth as a Table.
Yet though the Rules Joiners and Carpenters work by are so near the same, and the Tools they work with, and Stuff they work upon, the same; yet there are many Requisites proper to a Car⯑penter, (especially a Master Carpenter) that a Joiner need take little notice of, which, after I have described the Carpenters Tools that are not exprest among the Joiners, I shall speak to.
§ 1. Of several Tools used in Carpentry, that are not used in Joinery. And first of the Ax.
THe Ax marked A in Plate 8. is (as you see) different from what the Joiners Hatchet is, []
[figure]
[119] both in Size and Form; theirs being a light Hatchet, with a Basil edge on its left side, because it is to be used with one hand, and therefore hath a short Handle: But the Carpenter's Ax being to hew great Stuff, is made much deeper and heavier, and its edge tapering into the middle of its Blade. It hath a long Handle, because it is used with both their Hands, to square or bevil their Timbers.
When they use the Ax, the Timber hath com⯑monly some Bauk or Log laid under it near each end, that the edge of the Ax may be in less danger of striking into the ground, when they hew near the bottom of the Timber. And they commonly stand on that side the Timber they hew upon.
§ 2. Of the Adz, and its use.
THe Adz marked B in Plate 8. hath its Blade made thin, and somewhat arching. As the Ax hath its edge parallel to its Handle, so the Adz hath its edge athwart the Handle, and is ground to a Basil on its inside to its outer edge: Wherefore when it is blunt they cannot well grind it, unless they take its Helve out of its Eye.
Its general Use is to take thin Chips off Tim⯑ber or Boards, and to take off those Irregularities that the Ax by reason of its Form cannot well come at; and that a Plane (though rank set) will not make riddance enough with.
It is most used for the taking off the Irregulari⯑ties on the framed Work of a Floor, when it is framed and pin'd together, and laid on its place; for that lying flat under them, the edge of the Ax being parallel to its Handle (as aforesaid) cannot come at the Irregularities to take them off; but the Adz having its edge athwart the Handle will. Again, upon some Posts framed upright, and range with other framed Work close to it, [120] the edge of the Ax cannot come at the Irregulari⯑ties for the reason aforesaid, but the Adz will. And the like for the Irregularities of framed Work on a Ceiling, &c.
When they work upon the framed Work of a Floor, they take the end of the Handle in both their Hands, placing themselves directly before the Irregularity, at a small Distance, stradling a little with both their Legs, to prevent Danger from the edge of the Adz, and so by degrees hew off the Irregularity. But if they hew upon an Up⯑right, they stand directly before it.
They sometimes use the Adz upon small thin Stuff, to make it thinner, (but this is many times when the Ax, or some other properer Tool, lies not at hand) and then they lay their Stuff upon the Floor, and hold one end of it down with the Ball of the Foot, if the Stuff be long enough; if not, with the ends of their Toes, and so hew it lightly away to their size, form, or both.
§ 3. Of Carpenters Chissels in general.
THough Carpenters for their finer Work use all the sorts of Chissels described in the Art of Joinery yet are not those sorts of Chissels strong e⯑nough for their rougher and more common Work, and therefore they also use a stronger sort of Chissels; and distinguish them by the name of Socket-Chissels: For whereas those Chissels Joiners use have their wooden Heads made hollow to receive the Iron Sprig above the Shoulder of the Shank, Carpen⯑ters have their Shank made with an hollow Socket at its Top, to receive a strong wooden Sprig made to fit into the Socket, with a square Shoul⯑der above it, the thickness of the Iron of the Socket, or somewhat more; which makes it much more strong, and able to endure the heavy blows of the Mallet they lay upon the head of the Chis⯑sel. [121] And the Shanks and Blades are made strong⯑er for Carpenter's Use than they are for Joiners.
Of these Socket-Chissels they have of the several sorts described in Joinery, though not all several⯑ly distinguished by their Names; for they call them Half-Inch, Three-quarter-Inch Chissels, Inch and Half, Two-Inch, to Three-Inch Chissels, according to the breadth of the Blade. But their Uses are the same mentioned in Joinery, though the manner of using them be somewhat different too: For, as I told you in Joinery, the Joiners press the edge of the Blade into the Stuff, with the strength of their Shoulders, but the Carpenters with the force of the blows of the Mallet. And the Joiners guide their Chissels differently from what the Carpenters do their Socket-Chissels; for the Joiners hold the Shank and Blade of their Chissels, as I described in Joinery, Sect. 11. but the Carpenters hold the Shank of their Chissels in their clutched left Hand, and beat upon the Head with the Mallet in the right. See the Figure of Socket-Chissel in Plate 8. C. with its Head a out of the Socket.
§ 4. Of the Ripping-Chissel, and its Use.
THe Ripping-Chissel described in Plate 8. D. is a Socket-Chissel, and is about an Inch broad, and hath a blunt Edge. Its Edge hath not a Basil, as almost all other Chissels have, and therefore would more properly be called a Wedge than a Chissel But most commonly Carpenters use an old cast off Chis⯑sel for a Ripping-Chissel.
Its Office is not to cut Wood, as others do, but to rip or tear two pieces of Wood fastned together from one another, by entering the blunt Edge of it between the two pieces, and then knocking hard with the Mallet upon the head of the Handle, till you drive the thicker part of it between the two pieces, and so force the power that holds [122] them together (be it Nails, or otherwise) to let go their hold: For its blunt Edge should be made of Steel, and well tempered, so that if you knock with strong blows of the Mallet the Chissels Edge upon a Nail (though of some considerable Sub⯑stance) it may cut or brake it short asunder. If you cannot, at once, placing the Ripping-Chissel, part the two pieces, you must use two Ripping-Chissels, placing the second at the remotest en⯑trance in the breach, and driving that home, will both open the breach wider, and loosen the first Ripping-Chissel, so that you may take it again, and place it farther in the breach: And so you must continue edging farther and farther, till you have separated your intended pieces.
It is sometimes used when Carpenters have com⯑mitted Error in their Work, and must undo what they did, to mend it. But it is generally used in all Alterations, and old Work.
§ 5. Of the Draw-knife, and its Use.
THe Draw-knife described Plate 8. E. is seldom used about House-building, but for the ma⯑king of some sorts of Houshold-stuff; as the Legs of Crickets, the Rounds of Ladders, the Rails to lay Cheese or Bacon on, &c.
When they use it, they set one end of their Work against their Breast, and the other end a⯑gainst their Work-bench, or some hollow Angle that may keep it from slipping, and so pressing the Work a little hard with their Breast against the Bench, to keep it steddy in its Position, they with the Handles of the Draw knife in both their Hands, enter the edge of the Draw-knife into the Work, and draw Chips almost the length of their Work, and so smoothen it quickly.
§ 6. Of Hook-Pins, and their use.
[123]THe Hook-Pin is described Plate 8. F. a the Pin, b the Hook, c the Head. Its Office is to pin the Frame of a Floor, or Frame of a Roof to⯑gether, whilst it is framing, or whilst it is fitting into its Position. They have many of these Hook-Pins to drive into the several Angles of the Frame. These drive into the Pin-holes through the Mor⯑tesses and Tennants, and being made Taper, do with a Hammer striking on the bottom of it knock it out again; or they most commonly strike under the Hook, and so knock it out. Then if the Frame lie in its place, they pin it up with wooden Pins.
§ 7. Of the Level, and its use.
THe Level described in Plate 8. G. aa the Le⯑vel, b the Plumbet, c the Plumb-line, dd the Perpendicular mark'd from the top to the bottom of the Board. The Level is from two to ten Foot long, that it may reach over a considerable length of the Work. If the Plumb-line hang just upon the Perpendicular dd, when the Level is set flat down upon the Work, the Work is Level: But if it hang on either side the Perpendicular, the Floor, or Work, must be raised on that side, till the Plumb-line hang exactly upon the Perpendicular.
§ 8. Of the Plumb-line, and its use.
THe Plumb-line is described in Plate 8. H. a the Line-Rowl, b the Line. It is used to try the upright standing of Posts, or other Work that is to stand Perpendicular to the Ground Plot; and then they draw off so much Line as is necessary, and fasten the rest of the Line there, upon the Line-Rowl with a Slip-knot, that no more Line turn off· They hold the end of the Line between [124] their Finger and Thumb half the Diameter of the Line-Rowl off one corner of the Post, or Work; and if the Line and Corner of the Post be parallel to each other, the Post is upright: But if the Post be not parallel to the Line, but its bottom stands more than half the Diameter of the Line-Rowl from the Line, the Post hangs so much over the bottom of the Post on that side the Line bears off, and must be forced backwards till the side of the Post and the Line become parallel to each other. But if the bottom of the Corner of the Post stands out from the top of the Line, the Post must be forced forwards to comply with the Line.
§ 9. Of the Hammer, and its Use.
THe Hammer is described in Plate 8. I. a the Face, b the Claw, cc the Pen at the return sides of the Claw. This Tool was forgot to be described in Joinery, though they use Hammers too, and therefore I bring it in here. Its chief Use is for driving Nails into Work, and drawing Nails out of Work.
There is required a pretty skill in driving a Nail; for if (when you set the point of a Nail) you be not curious in observing to strike the flat face of the Hammer perpendicularly down upon the perpendicular of the Shank, the Nail (unless it have good entrance) will start aside▪ or bow, or break; and then you will be forced to draw it out again with the Claw of the Hammer. There⯑fore you may see a reason when you buy a Ham⯑mer, to chuse one with a true flat Face.
A little trick is sometimes used among some (that would be thought cunning Carpenters) pri⯑vately to touch the Head of the Nail with a lit⯑tle Ear-wax, and then lay a Wager with a Stran⯑ger to the Trick, that he shall not drive that Nail up to the Head with so many blows. The [125] stranger thinks he shall assuredly win, but does assuredly lose; for the Hammer no sooner touches the Head of the Nail, but instead of entring the Wood it flies away, notwithstanding his utmost care in striking it down-right.
§ 10. Of the Commander, and its Use.
THe Commander is described in Plate 8. K. It is indeed but a very great wooden Mallet, with an Handle about three foot long, to use in both the Hands.
It is used to knock on the Corners of Framed Work, to set them into their position. It is also used to drive small wooden Piles into the ground, &c. or where greater Engines may be spared.
§ 11. Of the Crow, and its Use.
THe Crow is described in Plate 8. L. a the Shank, bb the Claws, c the Pike-end. It is used as a Lever to lift up the ends of great heavy Timber, when either a Bauk, or a Rowler, is to be laid under it; and then they thrust the Claws be⯑tween the Ground and the Timber, and laying a Bauk, or some such Stuff behind the Crow, they draw the other end of the Shank backwards, and so raise the Timber.
§ 12. Of the Drug, and its Use.
THe Drug described in Plate 9. A. is made some⯑what like a low narrow Carr. It is used for the carriage of Timber, and then is drawn by the Handle aa, by two or more Men, according as the weight of the Timber may require.
There are also some Engines used in Carpentry, for the management of their heavy Timber, and hard Labour, viz. the Jack, the Crab, to which belongs Pullies and Tackle, &c. Wedges, Row⯑lers, great Screws, &c. But I shall give you an [126] account of them when I come to the explanation of Terms at the latter end of Carpentry.
§ 13. Of the Ten-foot Rod, and thereby to measure and describe the Ground-plot.
WE shall begin therefore to measure the Ground-plot, to which Carpenters use a Ten-foot Rod for Expedition, which is a Rod about an Inch square, and ten foot long; being divided in⯑to ten equal parts, each part containing one foot, and is divided into 24 equal parts, and their Sub-divisions.
With this Rod they measure the length and breadth of the Ground-plot into Feet, and if there be odd Inches, they measure them with the Two-foot Rule. Their measure they note down upon a piece of paper, and having considered the situa⯑tion of the Sides, East, West, North and South, they draw on paper their several Sides accordingly, by a small Scale, either elected, or else made for that purpose. They may elect their Two-foot Rule for some plots; for an Inch and an half may commo⯑diously serve to set off one Foot on some small Ground-plots, and then you have the Inches to that Foot actually divided by the Marks for the half quarters on the Two-foot Rule. But this large Scale will scare serve to describe a Ground-plot a⯑bove ten Foot in length, because a small sheet of Paper is not above 15 or 16 Inches long, and therefore one sheet of Paper will not contain it, if the Ground-plot be longer: Therefore if you make every half quarter of an Inch to be a Scale for two Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 20 Foot in length: And if you make every half quar⯑ter of an Inch to be a Scale for four Inches, a sheet of Paper will contain 40 Foot. And thus by di⯑minishing the Scale, the sheet of Paper will con⯑tain a greater number of Feet.
[127]But having either elected, or else made your Scale, you are to open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale your Ground-plot hath in length, and then transfer that Distance to your paper, and to draw a straight Line between the two points, and mark that straight Line with East, West, North or South, according to the situation of that side of the Ground-plot it represents. Then a⯑gain open your Compasses to the number of Feet on your Scale one of the adjoining Sides contains, and transfer that Distance also to your paper, and draw a Line between the two points, and note its situation of East, West, North or South, as before. Do the like by the other Sides; and if either a Quirk, or any Addition, be added to the Build⯑ing, on any side of your Ground-plot, you must de⯑scribe it also proportionably.
Then you are to consider what Apartments, or Partitions, to make on your Ground-plot, or second, or third Story, and to set them off from your Scale, beginning at your intended Front. As for Example, Suppose your Ground-plot be a Long-square, 50 Foot in length, and 20 Foot wide: This Ground-plot will contain in its length two good Rooms, and a Yard behind it 10 Foot long. If you will, you may divide the 40 Foot into two equal parts, so will each Room be 20 Foot square: Or you may make the Rooms next the Front deeper, or shallower, and leave the remainder for the Back-Room: As here the Front-Room is 25 Foot, and the Back-Room 15 Foot deep, and a setting off of 8 Foot broad and 10 Foot long tak⯑ing out of the Yard, for a Buttery below Stairs (if you will) and Closets above Stairs over it. But what width and depth soever you intend your Rooms shall have, you must open your Compasses to that number of Feet on your Scale, and set off that Distance on the East, West, North or South, [128] Line, according to the Situation of that side it re⯑presents on your Ground-plot. If you set it off the East Line, you must also set it off on the West; if on the North Line, you must also set it off on the South Line: Because between the two Settings off on the East and West Lines, or North or South Lines, you must draw a straight Line of the length of your intended Partition. And in this manner you must from every Partition draw a Line in its proper place on the Paper, by measuring the Dis⯑tances each Partition must have from the outside of the Ground-plot.
And thus you are also to describe by your Scale your Front, and several sides of the Carcase; allowing the Principal Posts, Enterduces, Quar⯑terings, Braces, Gables, Doors, Windows, and Orna⯑ments, their several Sizes, and true Positions by the Scale: Each side upon a Paper by it self: Un⯑less we shall suppose our Master-Workman to un⯑derstand Perspective; for then he may, on a sing⯑gle piece of Paper, describe the whole Building, as it shall appear to the Eye at any assigned Sta⯑tion.
§ 14. Of Foundations.
HAving drawn the Draft, the Master-Work⯑man is first to cause the Cellars to be dug, if the House shall have Cellars. And then to try the Ground, that it be all over of an equal firm⯑ness, that when the weight of the Building is set upon it, it may not sink in any part. But if the Ground be hollow or weaker in any place, he strengthens it, sometimes by well ramming it down, and levelling it again with good dry Earth, Lime-Core, Rubbish, &c. or sometimes with ram⯑ming in Stones, or sometimes with well Planking it; or most securely by driving in Piles. But driving in of Piles is seldom used for Timber [129] Houses, but for Stone, or Brick Houses, and that but in few places of England neither, but where the Ground proves Fenny, or Moorish. Therefore a farther account shall be given of Foundations, when I come to exercise upon Masonry, &c.
Then are the Celler-Walls to be brought up by a Brick-layer with Brick; for small Houses two Bricks thick, for bigger two and an half Bricks thick, or three or four Bricks thick, according to the bigness of the House, and quality of the Ground, as I shall shew when I come to Exercise on Bricklaying.
But if the House be designed to have no Cellars (as many Country-Houses have not) yet for the better securing the Foundation, and preserving the Timber from rotting, Master-Workmen will cause three, or four, or five course of Bricks to be laid, to lay their Ground-plates upon that Founda⯑tion.
The Foundation being made good, the Master-Workman appoints his Under-Workmen their se⯑veral Scantlins, for Ground-plates, Principal Post [...], Posts, Bressummers, Girders, Trimmers, Joysts, &c. which they cut square, and frame their Timbers to, as has been taught in the several Exercises up⯑on Joinery, (whither I refer you) and there set them up, each in its proper place, according to the Draft.
The Draft of a Foundation I have described in Plate 10, according to a Scale of eight Foot in an Inch; where you have the Front AB 20 Foot long, the sides AC and BD 50 Foot long. The Shop, or first Room, EE 25 Foot (as aforesaid) deep. I make the first Room a Shop, because I in⯑tend to describe Shop-windows, Stalls, &c. though you may Build according to any other purpose: The Kitching, or Back-Room FF 15 Foot deep. A Buttry or Closet, taken out of the Yard, marked G, [130] 10 Foot deep, and 8 Foot wide: H a Setting off in the Yard, 4 Foot square for the House of Office. I Leaving way in the Shop for a Stair-Case 6 Foot, and 11 Foot. K The Yard. L The Sink-hole 1 Foot square. M Leaving way in the Kitching 6 Foot deep, and 4 Foot wide for the Chimneys.
I do not deliver this Draft of Partitions for the most Commodious for this Ground-plot, nor is the House set out designed for any particular Inhabitant; which is one main purpose to be considered of the Master-Workman, before he make his Draft; for a Gentleman's House must not be divided as a Shop-keeper's, nor all Shop-keepers House a-like; for some Trades require a deeper, others may dispence with a shallow⯑er Shop, and so an Inconvenience may arise in both. For if the Shop be shallow, the Front Rooms upwards ought to be shallow also: Because by the strict Rules of Architecture, all Partitions of Rooms ought to stand directly over one another: For if your Shop stands in an eminent Street, the Front Rooms are commonly more Airy than the Back Rooms; and always more Commodious for observing publick P [...]ssages in the Street, and i [...] that respect it will be inconvenient to make the Front Rooms shallow: But if you have a fair Pro⯑spect backwards of Gardens, Feilds, &c. (which seldom happens in Cities) then it may be conve⯑nient to make your Back-Rooms the larger for Entertainment, &c. Bu [...] I shall run no farther in⯑to this Argument; for I shall leave the Master-Workman to consult Books of Architecture, and more particularly the Builder, which, in this case, they ought all to do.
[figure]
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES; OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works
Continued in the ART of House-Carpentry.
[131]- AC, BD, CD, NO, Ground-plates, Wall-plates, Bresummers, Lintels, the Thickness of the Wall.
- AB, Also a Ground-plate, or Ground-sell.
- PP, The Summer.
- QQQ, Girders.
- I, The Well-houle for the Stairs, and Stair-case.
- M, Leaving a way for the Chimnies.
- bb, Trimmers for the Chimny-way and Stair-case.
- aaaa, Joysts.
§ 15. Of Framing for the Floors.
THE four Plates, AB, AN, NO and BO, lying on the Foundation, are cal⯑led Ground-plates. They are to be of good Oak, and for this size of Build⯑ing about eight Inches broad, and six Inches deep. They are to be framed into one another with Tennants and Mortesses The longer Ground-plates AN and BO are commonly tennanted into the Front and Rear Ground-plates AB and NO, and into these two side-Ground-plates are Mortesses made for the Tennants at the ends of the Joysts, to be fitted somewhat loosly in, at a⯑bout ten Inches distance from one another, as in the Draft. These Ground-plates are to be bor [...]d with an Inch and half Augre, and well pinned int [...] [132] one another with round Oaken Pins, made taper⯑ing towards the point, and so strong, that with the hard blows of a Mallet, they may drive stiff into the Augre-hole, and keep the Tennant firmly in the Mortess. The manner of making a Tennant and Mortess is taught in Joinery, p. 85. But because the Stuff Carpenters work upon, is generally heavy Timber, and consequently not so easily managed as the light Stuff Joiners work upon; therefore they do not atfirst pin the [...] Tennants into their Mor⯑tesses with wooden Pins, lest they should lie out of square, or any other intended Position: But laying a Block, or some other piece of Timber, under the corner of the Frame-work to bear it hollow off the Foundation, or what ever else it lies upon, they drive Hook-pins (described in Plate 8. § 6.) into the four Augre-holes in the corners of the Ground-plates, and one by one sit the Plates either to a Square, or any other intended Position: And when it is so fitted, they draw out their Hook-pins, and drive in the wooden Pins (as aforesaid) and tak⯑ing away the wooden Blocks one by one from un⯑der the corners of the Frame, they let it fall into its place.
But before they pin up the Frame of Ground-plates, they must fit in the Summer marked PP, and the Girders QQ, and all the Joysts marked aaaa, &c and the Trimmers for the Stair-case, and Chimny- [...]way marked bb, and the binding Joysts marked cc, for else you cannot get their Tennants into their respective Mortess-holes. But they do I say fit all these in, while the Frame of Ground-plates lies loose, and may, corner by corner, be opened to let the respective Tennants into their respective Mor⯑tesses, which when all is done, they Frame the Raising-plates just as the Ground-plates are Framed; and then Frame the Roof into the Raising-plates with Beams, Joysts, &c.
[133]The Summer is in this Ground-plate placed at 25 Foot distance from the Front, and is to be of the same Scantlin the principal Plates are of, for Rea⯑sons as shall be shewn hereafter: And the Girders are also to be of the same Scantlins the Summers and Ground-plates are of, though according to the nice Rules of Architecture, the Back-Girder need not be so strong as the Front-Girder, because it Bears but at 14 Foot length, and the Front-Girder Bears at 24 Foot length: Yet Carpenters (for uniformi⯑ty) generally make them so, unless they build an House by the Great, and are agreed for the Sum of Money, &c.
The Joysts Bearing at 8 Foot (as here they do) are to be 7 Inches deep, and 3 Inches broad.
The Trimmers and Trimming Joysts are 5 Inches broad and 7 Inches deep, and these Joysts, Trim⯑mers and Trimming Joysts, are all to be pinned into their respective Mortesses; and then its flat⯑ness try'd with the Level, as was taught § 7.
§ 16. Of setting up the Carcass.
THough the Ground-plates, Girders, &c. be part of the Carcass, yet I thought sit in the last Section they should be l [...]id, before I treated of the Superstructure, which I shall now handle. The four Corner Posts called the Prin⯑cipal Posts marked AA, should be each of one piece, so long as to reach up to the Beam of the Roof, or Raising-plate, and of the same Scant⯑lin the Ground-plates are of, viz. 8 Inches [...]ro [...]d, and 6 Inches thick, and set with one of its nar⯑rowest sides towards the Front. Its lower end is to be Tennanted, and let into a Morte [...]s made near the corner of the Ground-plate Frame; and its upper end hath also a Tennant on it to sit into a Mortess made in the Beam of the Roof, or Rasing-piece.
[134]At the heighth of the first Story in this Prin⯑cipal Post, must be made two Mortesses, one to receive the Tennant at the end of the Bres⯑summer that lies in the Front, and the other to entertain the Tennant at the end of the Bress [...]mmer that lies in the Return-side.
Two such M [...]rtesses must also be made in this Principal [...]ost at the height of the second Story, to receive the Tennant at the ends of the Bres⯑summers for that Story.
Though I have spoken singularly of one Prin⯑cipal Post, yet as you work this, you must work all four Principal Posts; and then set them plumb upright, which you must try with a Plumb-line described in Plate 8 §. 8.
Having erected the Principal Posts upright, you must enter the Tennants of the Bressum⯑mers into their proper Mortesses, and with a Nail or two (about a single Ten or a double Ten) tack one end of a deal Board, or some other like piece of Stuff to the Bressummer, and the other end to the Fram'd Work of the Floor, to keep the Principal Posts upright, and in their places Then set up the several Posts between the Principal Posts; but these Posts must be Tennanted at each end▪ because they are to be no longer than to reach from Story to Story, or from Entertise to Entertise, and are to be framed into the upper and under Bres⯑summer. If the Entertises be not long enough, they set up a Principal Post between two or three Lengths, to reach from the Ground-plate up to the Raising-plates
It is to be remembred▪ that the Bressum⯑mers and Girders are laid flat upon one o [...] their broadest sides, with their two narrowes [...] sides Perpendicular to the Ground-plot [...]; but the Joysts are to be laid contrary: For they [135] are Framed so as to lie with one of their nar⯑rowest sides upwards, with their two broadest sides Perpendicular to the Ground-plot. The reason is, because the Stuff of the Bressummers and Girders are less weakned by cutting the Mortesses in them in this Position, than in the other Position; for as the Tennants for those Mortesses are cut between the top and bottom sides, and the flat of the Tennants are no broader than the flat of the narrowest side of the Joysts; so the Mortesses they are to fit into, need be no broader than the breadth of the Tennant, and the Tennants are not to be above an Inch thick, and consequently the Mortesses are to be made with an Inch Mortess-Chissel, as was shewn in Joinery, p. 86. for great care must be taken that the Bressummers and Girders be not weakned more than needs, lest the whole Floor dance,
These Tennants are cut through the two nar⯑rowest sides, rather than between the two broadest sides, because the Stuff of the Girders retains more strength when least of the Grain of the Stuff is cut: And the Tennants being made between the narrowest sides of the Joyces, requires their Mortess-holes no longer than the breadth of that Tennant: And that Tennant being but an Inch thick, requires its Mortess but an Inch wide to receive it; so that you Mortess into the Girder no more than three Inches wide with the Grain of the Stuff, and one Inch broad contrary to the Grain of the Stuff. But should the Tennant be cut between the two broad sides of the Joysts, the Mortess would be three Inches long, and but one Inch broad, and consequently, you must cut into the Girder three Inches cross the Grain of the Stuff, which would weaken it more than [...] Inches with the Grain, and one Inch [...].
[136]But it may be objected that the Tennants of the Joysts being so small, and bearing at an Inch thickness must needs be too weak.
Answer, First, Though the Tennants be in⯑deed but an Inch thick, and three Inches broad; yet the whole Bearing of the Joyces do not solely depend upon their Tennants; because the Girders they are framed into, prove common⯑ly somewhat Wainny upon their upper sides, and the Joysts are always scribed to project over that Waynniness, and so strengthen their Bearing by so much as they project over the Roundness or Waynniness of the upper side of the Girder.
Secondly, The Floor is boarded with the length of the Boards athwart the Joysts, and these Boards firmly railed down to the Joysts, which also adds a great strength to them.
Thirdly, The Joysts are seldom made to Bear at above ten Foot in length, and should by the Rule of good Workmanship, not lie above ten Inches asunder at the most: So that this short Bearing and close discharging of one an⯑other, renders the whole Floor firm enough for all common Occupation. But if the Joyces do Bear at above ten Foot in length, it ought to be the care of the Master-workman to provide stronger Stuff for them, viz Thicker and Broad⯑er. If not, they cut a Tusk on the upper side of the Tennant, and let that Tusk into the upper side of the Girders.
Having erected the Principal Post, and other Posts, and fitted in the Bressummers, Girders, Joysts, &c upon the first Floor, they pin up all the Frame of Carcass-work. But though the Girders and Joysts described for this first Floor, lie proper enough for it; yet for the second Story, and in this particular Case, the Joysts lie not proper for the second Story; because [137] in the second Story we have described a Balcony.
Therefore in this Case you must frame the Front-Bressummer about seven Inches lower into the Principal Posts: Because the Joysts for the second Floor are not to be Mortessed into the Bressummer to lie even at the top with it, but must lie upon the Bressummer, and project over it so far as you design the Balcony to project beyond the Upright of the Front: And thus laying the Joysts upon the Bressummer renders them much stronger to bear the Balcony, than if Joysts were Tennanted into the Front of the Bres⯑summer, and so project out into the Street from it.
But the Truth is, Though I have given you a Draft of the Joysts lying athwart the Front and Rear for the first Floor, you may as well lay them Range with the two sides on the first Floor. But then the Bressummer that reaches from Front to Rear in the middle of the Floor must be stronger: And Girders must then be Tennanted into the Bressummer, and the Ground-plates at such a Distance, that the Joysts may not Bear at above ten Foot in length. And the Tennants of the Joysts must be Tennanted into the Girders, so that they will then lie Range with the two Sides.
But, a word more of the Bressummer: I say (as before) the Bressummer to Bear at so great Length must be stronger, though it should be discharged at the Length of the Shop, (viz. at 25 Foot) with a Brick Wall, or a Foundati⯑on brought up of Brick. But if it should have no Discharge of Brick-work, but Bear at the whole 40 Foot in Length, your Bressummer must be yet considerably stronger than it need be, were it to Bear but 25 Foot in Length; be⯑cause the shorter all the Bearings of Timbers are, the firmer they Bear. But then the Fraim⯑ing Work will take up m [...]re Labour: And in [138] many Cases it is cheaper to put in stronger Stuff for long Bearings, than to put a Girder between, to Discharge the Length of the Joysts to be fram⯑ed into the Girders.
But to make short of this Argument, I shall give you the Scheme of Scantlins of Timber at several Bearings for Summers, Girders, Joysts, Rafters, &c. as they are set down in the Act of Parlia. for the Re⯑building the City of London, after the late dreadful Fire: Which Scantlins were well consulted by able Workmen before they were reduced into an Act.
Scantlins of Timber for the first Sorts of Houses| | | Foot | Inches | Inches |
| For the Floor | Summers under | 15 | 12 | and—8 |
| | Wall-plates | | 7 | and—5 |
| For the Roof | Principal Rafters under | - Foot 15 at foot—8 6 Inch
- Foot 15 at top—5 6 Inch
|
| Single Rafters | | 4 | and—3 Inches. |
| | Length Foot | Thickness | Depth |
| Joysts to | 10 | 3 | and—7 Inches |
| Garret Floors | | | | 6 |
Scantlins of Timber for the other two Sorts of Houses.| | | Breadth Depth | | Thickness De [...] |
| | | Foot Foot | Inches Inches | | Inches Inch [...] |
| For the Floor. | Summers or G [...]rders which bear in length from | [...]—to—15 | 11—and— [...] | Joysts which bear 10 Foot | 3—6 |
| 15—18 | 13—9 | 3— [...] |
| 1 [...]—21 | 14—1 [...] | 3— [...] |
| 21—24 | 16—12 | 3— [...] |
| 24—26 | 17—14 | 3— [...] |
| | | Inches Inches |
| Principal Discharges upon Peers in the first Story in the Fronts | |
| Binding Joysts with their Trimming Joysts | - Thickness Inches
- 5— depth equal to their own Floors
|
| | | | | Inches Inches |
| Wall-plates, or Raising Pieces and Beams | |
| | | | | Inches Inches |
| Lintels of Oak in the | - 1st. and 2d. Story—8 and 6
- 3d. Story— [...]—4
|
| For the Roof. | | Length | | Thickness |
| | Foot Foot | Inches | Inches |
| Principal Rafters from | 15 to 18 | | 7 |
| 18 — 21 | | 8 |
| 21—24 | | 8 ½ |
| 24 — 26 | | 9 |
| | Length | | |
| | Foot Foot | Inches Inches | |
| Purlins from | |
| | | Foot Inches Inches |
| Single Rafters | - not exceeding in length—9—5—4
- not exceeding in length—6—4—3—½
|
Scantlins for Sawed Timber and Laths, usually brought out of the West Country, not less than| | Breadth | Thickness |
| | Foot | Inches | Inches |
| Single Quarters in length | 8 | 3 ½ | 1 ¾ |
| Double Quart. in length | 8 | 4 | 3 ½ |
| Sawed Joysts in length | 8 | 6 | 4 |
| Laths in length | | 1 ¼ | 1 quarter and ½ Inch |
| | | | Inches |
| Stone Where Stone is used, to keep to these Scant⯑lins— | - First sort of Houses
- Corner Peers
- 18 square
- Middle or Single Peers
- 14 and 12
- Double Peers between House and House
- 14 and 18
- Door-Jambs and Heads
- 12 and 8
- 2d & 3d sorts—
- Foot
- Inches
- Corner Peers
- 2—6 square
- Middle or Single Peers
- 18 square
- Double Peers between House and House
- 24 and 18
- Door Jambs and Heads
- 14 and 10
|
| Foot | Thickness | | |
| Scant⯑lins for Sewers | - 3 wide
- Side-walls-1 Brick ½ Bottom paved plain, and then 1 Brick on edge circular.
- 5 high
- Arch-1 Brick on end Bottom paved plain, and then 1 Brick on edge circular.
|
General RULES.
[140]IN every Foundation within the Ground add one Brick in thickness to the thickness of the Wall (as in the Scheme) next above the Foun⯑dation, to be set off in three Courses equally on both sides.
That no Timber be laid within twelve Inches of the fore-side of the Chimney Jambs: And that all Joysts on the back of any Chimney be laid with a Trimmer at six Inches distance from the Back.
That no Timber be laid within the Tunnel of any Chimney, upon Penalty to the Workman for every Default ten Shillings, and ten Shillings every Week it continues un reformed.
That no Joysts or Rafters be laid at greater distances from one to the other, than twelve Inches; and no Quarters at greater distance than fourteen Inches.
That no Joysts bear at longer length than ten Foot; and no single Rafters at more in length than nine Foot.
That all Roofs, Window-frames, and Celler-floors be made of Oak.
The Tile-pins of Oak.
No Summers or Girders to lie over the Head of Doors and Windows.
No Summer or Girder to lie less than ten Inches into the Wall, no Joysts than eight Inches, and to be laid in Lome.
[141] But yet the Carcass is not compleated, till the Quarters and Braces between the principal Posts and Posts are fitted in; the Window-frames made and set up, and the principal Rafters, Purlins, Gables, &c. are also fram'd and set up. The manner of their Pitch and Scantlins you will see in Plate 11. And the Reasons for several Pitche [...] you may find among Books of Architecture. But the Names of every Member you will find in the Alphabetical Table at the latter end of these Exercises on Car⯑pentry, referred unto by Letters and Arithmeti⯑cal Figures in the Plate aforesaid.
But now we will suppose the Carcass is thus finished. The Bricklayer is then to bring up the Chimnies, and afterwards to Tile the House. And then the next Work the Carpenter has to do, is to bring up the Stairs, and Stair-cases, and after⯑wards to Floor the Rooms, and Hang the Doors, &c. For should he either bring up the Stairs and Stair-cases, or Floor the Rooms before the House is Tiled, or otherwise covered, if wet Weather should happen it might injure the Stairs, Floor⯑ing, &c.
- A, The Ground-plate, or Ground-sell.
- BB, BB, The Principal Posts.
- CC, The Binding Intertises, or indeed, more proper⯑ly Interduces, Bressummers, Girders.
- D, Beam of the Roof, Bressummer, or Girder to the Garret Floor.
- EE, Principal Rafters. FF, Bressummers.
- G, Plate or Raising-piece, also a Beam.
- aa, Jaums or Door-posts. bb, Braces. cc, Jaums.
- d, Top-rail of the Balcony.
- ee, Bottom-rail of the Balcony.
- fff, Posts of the Balcony.
- ggg, Banisters.
- hh, Bressummers for the Shop-windows▪
- [142] H, King-piece or Joggle-piece.
- ii, Struts.
- kk, Top-beam, Coller-beam, Wind-beam, Strut-beam.
- lll, Door-head.
- II, The Feet of the principal Rafters.
- K, The Top of the Rafters.
- IIK, The Gable-end.
- LL, Knees of the principal Rafters, to be made all of one piece with the principal Rafters.
- M, The Fust of the House.
- NN, Purlins.
- OO, Shop-windows.
- PP, Flaps or Falls.
- mmm, Quarters.
- nn, Jaums of the Window.
- oo, Back and Head of the Window.
- pp, Transums.
- qq, Munnions.
- rr, Furrings, or Shreadings.
- V, Single light Windows or L [...]teons.
- sss, Rafters.
§ 16. Of Window-Frames.
IN Brick Buildings the Window-Frames are so framed, that the Tennants of the Head-sell, Ground-sell, and Transum, run though the outer Jaums about four Inches beyond them: And so they are set in a Lay of Morter upon the Brick-wall before the Peers on either side is brought up, at about three Inches within the Front; So that the Brick-work over the Head and about the Jaums defend it from the Weather. Then the Bricklayer brings up the Peers on both sides, so that the four Ends or Tennants that project through the outer Jaums being buried and trimmed into the Brick-work become a Fastning to the Window-Frame.
[143]But if the Window-Frame stands on a Timber-house, the Head and Ground-sell are sometimes Tennanted into Posts of the Carcass; and then the Posts do the Office of the outer Jaums of the Window-Frame; and the Head and Ground-sell are then called Entertises, and therefore both Head and Ground-sell, and Posts or Jaums, are rabbetted about half an Inch on the outside of the Front, to receive the Pane of Glass that is fitted to it. And thus (as I said) the Posts become part of the Window-Frame.
But the better way is to frame a Window as the Brick-work Window, and to project it an Inch and a half beyond the side of the Building, and to Plaister against its sides, for the better securing the rest of the Carcass from the Wea⯑ther.
The Window-Frame hath every one of its Lights Rabbetted on its outside about half an Inch into the Frame, and all these Rabbets, but that on the Ground-sell, are grooved square, but the Rabbets on the Ground-sell is bevell'd down⯑wards, that Rain or Snow, &c. may the freelier fall off it. Into these Rabbets the several Panes of Glass-work is set, and fastned by the Glasier.
The square Corners of the Frame next the Glass is Bevell'd away both on the out and inside of the Building, that the Light may the freelier play upon the Glass And upon that Bevel is com⯑monly Stuck a Molding (for Ornament sake) according to the Fancy of the Workman, but more generally according to the various Mode of the Times.
§ 17. Of Stairs, and Stair-Cases.
[144]SEveral Writers of Architecture have delivered different Rules for the Height and Breadth of Steps, and that according to the several Capacities of the Stair-Cases. They forbid more than six, and less than four Inches for the Heighth of each Step, and more than sixteen, and less than twelve, for the Breadth of each Step. But here we must understand they mean these Measures should be observed in large and sumptuous Buildings: But we have here proposed an ordinary private House, which will admit of no such Measures, for want of room. Therefore to our present purpose.
The first and second Pair of Stairs the Steps shall be about 7 ⅓ Inches high, and 10 Inches broad. The third Pair of Stairs each Step may be about 6 ½ Inches high, and 9 ½ Inches broad. And for the fourth Pair of Stairs, each Step may be about 6 Inches high, and 9 Inches broad. But this Rule they do, or should follow, viz. to make all the Steps belonging to the same pair of Stairs of an equal height; which to do, they first consi⯑der the heighth of the Room in Feet and odd Inches, if any odd be, and multiply the Feet by 12, whose Product, with the number of odd Inches, gives the sum of the whole Heighth in Inches; which sum they divide by the number of Steps they intend to have in that Heighth, and the Quotient shall be the number of Inches and parts that each Step shall be high. Or, if they first design the Heighth of each Step in Inches, they try by Arithmetick how many times the Heighth of a Step they can have out of the whole Heighth of the Story, and so know the number of Steps.
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
Continued in the ART of House-Carpentry.
[145]STAIRS are either made about a Solid Newel, or an Open Newel, and sometimes mixt, viz. with a Solid Newel for some few Steps; then a straight or Foreright Ascent, with Flyers upon the side of the square Open Newel, and afterwards a Solid Newel a⯑gain. Than reiterate, &c.
The last, viz. the Mixt Newel'd Stairs, are commonly made in our Party-walled Houses in London, where no Light can be placed in the Stair-Case, because of the Party-walls; so that there is a necessity to let in a Sky-light through the Hollow Newel: But this sort of Stair-Cases take up more room than those with a single so⯑lid Newel; because the Stairs of a solid Newel spread only upon one small Newel, as the se⯑veral Foulds of the Fans Woman use spread a⯑bout their Center: But these because they some⯑times wind, and sometimes fly off from that winding, take therefore the more room up in the Stair-Case.
The manner of projecting them, is copiously taught in many Books of Architecture, whether I referr you: Yet not to leave you wholly in the [146] dark, I shall give you a small light into it. And first of the Solid Nowel.
Winding Stairs are projected on a round Pro⯑file, whose Diameter is equal to the Base the Stair-Case is to stand on, suppose six foot square. This Profile hath its Circumference divided into 16 equal parts. The Semi-diameter of the Pro⯑file is divided into four equal parts, and one of them used for the Newel, and the rest for the length of the Steps: If you draw Lines from the Center through every one of the equal parts into the Circumference, the space between every two Lines will be the true Figure of a Winding-Step. And if they were all cut out and placed one above another, over the true place on the Profile round about the Newel, whose Diame⯑ter is one quarter the length of a Step, you would by supporting each Step with a Raiser have the modle of a true pair of Winding-Stairs. See Plate 10. Fig. 2.
Hollow Newel'd Stairs are made about a square Hollow Newel. We will suppose the Well-hole to be eleven foot long, and six foot wide; and we would bring up a pair of Stairs from the first Floor eleven Foot high; it being intended that a Skie-light shall fall through the Hollow Newel upon the Stairs: We must therefore con⯑sider the width and breadth of the Hollow New⯑el; and in this example admit it to be two foot and a half wide, and two foot broad: By the width I mean the sides that range with the Front and Rear of the Building, and by the breadth I mean the sides that range with the Party-walls.
I find (by the Rule aforesaid) that if I assign 18 Steps up, each Step will be seven Inches and one third of an Inch high.
[147]You must Note, that the flying off, or else winding of these Steps will vary their places ac⯑cording as you design the first Ascent. For if you make the first Ascent as you come straight out of the Street (as in Plate 10.) on the South-side, you will first ascend upon a Pitch of Flyers, which Pitch (making an Angle of 38 deg. with the Floor) with ten Steps raise you six Foot high above the Floor, and bring you eight Foot towards the North-end of the Well-hole, by ma⯑king each Step ten Inches broad.
But now you must leave Flyers, and make four Winding Steps. These Winding Steps are made about a solid Newel (as hath been taught) and this Newel serves also for a Post to Trim the Stair-Case too. This Post stands upon the Floor, and is prolonged upwards so high, that Mortesses made in it may receive the Tennants of the Top and Bottom Rails of the whole Stair-case for that Floor: These four Winding steps aforesaid, rounding one quarter about the Newel, turns your Face in your Ascent now towards the East; these four steps are raised 2 foot, 5 ⅓ Inches a⯑bove the Flyers, so that (in all) your Stairs are now raised 8 foot 6 ⅔ Inches. Here remains now only 2 foot 5 ½ Inches to the Landing place, and these take up just four Flyers, which must be made as was taught before.
But now in your second pair of Stairs, it will be proper to begin your Ascent with your Face towards the West: For landing by the first pair of Stairs with your Face towards the East, you turn by the side of the Rail on the second Floor from the East towards the North, and at the fur⯑ther end of that Rail, you turn your Face again from the North towards the West, and begin your Ascent on the second pair of Stairs.
[148]Between the Skie-light and the Ascent is a Post set upright to fasten Rails into: (to bound the Stair-case) from the bottom of which, viz. on the second Floor you trim up three Flyers, and then turn off a quarter of a Circle, with Wind⯑ing Steps: Then again, Flyers to your designed pitch: And then again another quarter of a Cir⯑cle with Winding Steps, &c.
The Rail these Steps are built upon, being at the beginning or bottom of the Ascent framed or otherwise fastned to the first upright Post, must at its higher end be framed into the next Post also, with a Bevel Tennant, as you were taught to frame Quarters into one another, Numb. 5. § 17. Only with this difference, that there you were taught to frame Square; but here you must frame upon the Bevel, as you were taught, Numb 5. § 19. This Post aforesaid bears upon the Floor, to make its Bearing the stronger; and this Post must be continued to such an heighth, as it may also serve to receive the Ten⯑nanted end of an upper and lower Rail framed into it. And between these Bevelling Rails, Ban⯑nisters make good the outside of the Stair-Case.
Though I have here described this Contrivance of a pair of Stairs, yet do I not deliver it as the best Patern for this Building, or for these sorts of Stairs, nor matters it to our purpose whether it be or no; for (as I told you before) my un⯑dertaking is the Doctrine of Handy-works, not Ar⯑chitecture; but it's Architecture considers the best forming of all Members in a Building for the capacity of the Ground-Plot, and the Conveni⯑ence of the intended Inhabitant; but Carpenters (as Carpenters) only work by directions pre⯑scribed by the Architect.
These therefore are the common Rules that these sorts of Stairs, and indeed all others with [149] carving according to the Profile or Ground-plot of the Stairs are made by. But those that will see many Inventions may consult Books of Ar⯑chitecture, &c.
§ 18. Of Flooring of Rooms.
THough Carpenters never Floor the Rooms till the Carcass is set up, and also inclosed by the Plaisterer, lest weather should wrong the Flooring; yet they generally Rough-plane their Boards for Flooring before they begin any thing else about the Building, that they may set them by to season: Which thus they do, they lean them one by one on end aslant with the edge of the Board against a Bauk, somewhat above the height of half the length of the Board, and set another Board in the same posture on the other side the Bauk, so that above the Bauk they cross one another: Then on the first side they set ano⯑ther Board in that posture, and on the second side another, till the whole number of Boards are set an end: Being set in this posture, there remains the thickness of a Board between every Board all the length, but just where they cross one another, for the Air to pass through to dry and shrink them, against they have occasion to use them: But they set them under some cove⯑red Shed, that the Rain or Sun comes not at them; for if the Rain wet them, instead of shrinking them, it will smell them; or if the Sun shine fiercely upon them, it will dry them so fast, that the Boards will Tear or Sh [...], which is in vulgar English, Split or Crack.
They have another way to dry and season them, by laying them flat upon three or four Bauks, each Board about the breadth of a Board asunder, the whole length of the Bauks. Then they lay another Lay of Boards athwart upon [150] them, each Board also the breadth of a Board asunder; then another Lay athwart the last, till all are thus laid: So that in this position they also lye hollow for the Air to play between them.
Thus then, the Boards being Rough-plain'd and Season'd. They try one side flat, as by Numb. 6. § 31. and both the edges straight, as if they were to shoot a Joint; as by Numb. 4. § 4. and cut the Boards to an exact length, be⯑cause if the Boards are not long enough to reach athwart the whole Room, the ends may all lye in a straight Line, that the straight ends of o⯑ther Boards laid against them may make the truer Joint, and this they call a Beaking Joint. But before they lay them upon the Floor, they try with the Level (described § 7.) the flatness of the whole Frame of Flooring again, lest any part of it should be Cast since it was first framed together; and if any part of the Floor lye too high, they with the Adz (if the eminency be large) take it off, as was shewed [...] 2. Or if it be small, with the Jack-Plain in Numb. 4 § 2. till it lye level with the rest of the Floor. But if any part of the Floor prove hollow, they lay a Chip, or some such thing, upon that hollow place, to bare up the Board, before they nail it down.
All this being done, they chuse a Board of the commonest thickness of the whole Pile for the first Board, and lay it close again one side of the Room athwart the Joysts, and so nail it firmly down with two Brads into every Joyst it crosses, each Brad about an Inch, or an Inch and a half within the edge of the Board.
If they should lay more than an ordinary thick or thin Board at the first, they would have a greater number of Boards to work to a Level [151] than they need, because all the rest of the Boards must be equalized in thickness to the first.
Then they lay a second Board close to the first. But before they nail it down they again try how its sides agrees with the side of the first, and also how its thickness agrees with the first Board. If any part of its edge lye hollow off the edge of the first Board, they shoot off so much of the length of the Board from that hollowness to⯑wards either end, till it comply and make a close Joint with the first. But if the edge swell in any place, they plain of that swelling till it comply as aforesaid.
If the second Board prove thicker than the first, then with the Adz (as aforesaid) they hew away the under side of that Board (most commonly cross the Grain, lest with the Grain the edge of the Adz should slip too deep into the Board) in every part of it that shall bare upon a Joyst, and so sink it to a flat superficies to comply with the first Board. If the Board be too thin, they underlay that Board upon eve⯑ry Joyst with a Cap, &c.
And as this second Board is laid, so are the other Boards laid, if they be well assured the Boards are dry, and will not shrink; but if they doubt the driness of the Boards, they (some⯑times do, or should) take a little more pains; for after they have nailed down the first Board, they will measure the breadth of two other Boards, laying them by the side of the first. But yet they will not allow them their full Room to lye in, but after there edges are true shot in a straight line, they will pinch them off about half a quarter of an Inch room more or less, according as they guess at the well-season⯑edness of the Boards; by nailing down the fourth Board nearer to the first Board by half a quarter [152] of an Inch (more or less) then the breadth of both Boards are. And though it be afterwards somewhat hard to get these two Boards into that narrow room, viz. between the first and fourth Board, yet they help themselves thus: The under-edge of these Boards that are to join to each other, they Bevel somewhat away, and then the first and fourth Board being fast nailed down (as aforesaid) they set the outer edges of these two Boards again the two nailed Boards, letting the inner edges of the two loose Boards meet▪ and make an Angle perpendicular to the F [...]oor. Then with two or three Men jumping [...] upon that Angle, these two Boards [...] and reiterated jumps by degrees [...] the superficies of the Floor, [...] with forcing Pins and Wedges, force them together: And then with Brads they nail them down, as they did the first Board. Thus afterwards they nail down a seventh Board, as they did the fourth, and then fit in the fifth and sixth Boards, as they did the second and third Boards. And so on, nailing down every third Board, and forcing two others between it and the last nailed Board, till the whole Floor be boarded.
But if these Boards are not long enough (as I hinted before) to reach through the whole Room, they examine how true the ends lye in a straight line with one another, by applying the edge of the Two-foot Rule to the ends, and where the ends of any Boards keep of the edge of the Two-foot Rule from complying with the whole range of ends, they with the Chissel and Mallet cut off that irregularity, holding and guiding the Chissel, so that it may rather cut a⯑way more of the bottom then top of the Board, that so the Boards joined to the ends of the first [153] laid Boards, may make on the Superficies of the Floor the finer and truer Joint.
Having thus Boarded the whole Room, not⯑withstanding they used their best diligence to do it exactly, yet may the edges of some Boards lye somewhat higher than the Board it lies next to; therefore they peruse the whole Floor, and where they find any irregularities they plane them off with the Plane, &c.
§ 19. The Hanging of Doors, Windows, &c.
THe Floors being Boarded, the next work is to Hang the Doors, in which tho' there be little difficulty, yet is there much care to be taking, that the Door open and shut well.
If the Door have a Door-Case (as Chamber-Doors, and Closet-Doors commonly have) the Jaums of the Door-Case must stand exactly per⯑pendicular, which you must try by the Plumb-line, as by § 8. and the Head of the Door-Case or Entertise must be fitted exactly square to the Jaums, as you where taught Numb. 3. § 17, 18, 19. and the Angles of the Door must be made exactly square, and the Rabbets of the Door to fit axactly into the Rabbets of the Door-Case. But yet they commonly make the Door about one quarter of an Inch shorter than the insides of the Jaums of the Door-Case, least if the Boards of the Floor chance to swell within the sweep of the Door, the bottom of the Door should drag upon the Floor.
They consider what sort of Hindges are pro⯑perest for the Door they are to Hang. When they have a Street-door (which commonly is to take off and lift on) they use Hooks and Hindges. In a Battend-door, Back-door, or other Battend-door, or Shop-windows, they use Cross-Garnets. If a Framed Door, Side Hindges ▪ And for Cup-boards [154] Doors, and such like, Duf-tails. (See the description of these Hindges in Numb. 1. Fig. 1. 5, 6.) But what sort of Hindges soever they use, they have care to provide them of a strength proportionable to the size and weight of the Door they hang with them. Well-made Hindges I have described Numb. 1. fol. 20. whither to avoid repetition I refer you.
If they hang a Street-door (which is com⯑monly about six foot high) they first drive the Hooks into the Door-post, by entring the Post first with an Augure: But the Bit of the Augure, must be less than the Shank of the Hook, and the hole boared not so long, because the Shank of the Hook, must be strongly forced into the Au⯑gure-hole, and should the Augure-hole be too wide, the Shank would be loose in it, and not stick strong enough in it. Therefore if the Shank be an Inch square, an half Inch-Augure is big enough to bore that hole with, because it will then endure the heavier blows of an Ham⯑mer, to drive it so far as it must go; and the stronger it is forced in, the faster the Hook sticks; but yet they are careful not to split the Door-post.
These Hooks are commonly drove in about Fifteen Inches and an half above the Ground-sell, and as much below the top of the Door. It is, or should be, their care to chuse the Pin of the lower Hook about a quarter of an Inch longer than that they use for the upper Hook (or else to make it so) because these Doors are com⯑monly unweildy to lift off and on, especially to lift both the Hindges on both the Hooks at once. Therefore when the lower Hindge is lift⯑ed on the lower Hook, if the Door be then lifted perpendicularly upright, so high as the under side of the upper Hindge may just reach the top [155] of the upper Hook, you may the easier slip the Eye of the upper Hindge upon the Hook; where⯑as, if the lower Hook be either shorter, or just no longer than the other, instead of lifting it readily upon the upper Hook, you may lift it off the lower Hook, and so begin the labour again.
Having drove in the Hooks, they set the Rab⯑bets of the Door within the Rabbets of the Door-post, and underlay the bottom of the Door, with a Chip or two about half a quarter of an Inch thick, to raise the Door that it drag not. Then they put the Eyes of the Hindges over the Pins of the Hooks, and placing the Tail piece of the Hindges parallel to the bottom and top of the Door, they so nail them upon.
This is the Rule they generally observe for Hanging Doors, Shop-windows, &c. Only, some⯑times instead of Nailing the Hindges upon the Door, they Rivet them on, for more strength. And then, after they have fitted the Door, or Window, into its Rabbets, and laid the Hindges in there proper place and position (as aforesaid) they make marks in the Nail-holes of the Hindge with the point of their Compasses upon the Door, and at those marks they Pierce holes, with a Piercer-Bit, that fits the shank of the Ri⯑vet; then they put the shank of the Rivet thro' the holes made in the Door; yet so that the Head of the Rivet be on the outside of the Door; and they also put the end of the Shank into the Nail-hole of the Hinge, and so whilst another Man holds the head of the Hatchet against the Head of the Rivet, they with the Pen of their Hammer batter and spread the flat end of the Shank over the Hole, as was shewn Numb. 2. fol. 24.25.
The Titles of some Books of Architecture.
[156]- SEbastion Seirleo, in Folio.
- Hans Bloom's Five Collumns, Folio.
- Vignola, in Folio.
- Vignola, Or the Compleat Architect, in Octvo.
- Scamotzi, Quarto.
- Palladio, Quarto.
- Sir Henry Wotton's Elements of Architecture, Quarto.
These Books are all Printed in English: But there are many others extant in several other Languages, of which Vitruvius is the chief: For from his Book the rest are generally derived; as Philip Le Orm, Ditterlin, Marlois, and many o⯑thers, which being difficult to be had among Book-sellers, and these sufficient for information, I shall omit till another opportunity.
An Explanation of Terms used in Carpentry.
A
- ADz, Plate 8. B § 2.
- Arch, Any work wrought Circular, [...] the top part of some Window-frames, the top of some great Gates, the Roof of Vaults, &c.
- Architrave, See Numb. 6. Plate 6.1. and Plate 6. A. § 1.
- Ax, Numb. 7. Plate 8. A.
B
- BAck or Hip-molding. The backward Hips or Valley-Rafters in the way of an Angle for the back part of a Building.
- Bannister, Numb. 8. Plate 11. ggg.
- Base, is commonly the Bottom of a Cullumn. See Numb. 6. Plate 6. h. and Plate 7. B.
- [157] Batement, To abate or waste a piece of Stuff, by forming of it to a designed purpose. Thus instead of asking how much was cut off such a piece of Stuff, Carpenters ask what Batement that piece of Stuff had.
- Batter, The side, or part of the side of a Wall, or any Timber that bulges from its bot⯑tom or Foundation, is said to Batter, or hang over the Foundation.
- Battlement, A flat Roof or Platform to walk [...] ▪ But Battlements are more properly Walls [...] about the Platform to inclose it, as is seen [...] Towers for defence; part of the Battlement [...]eing Breast high that Musquetiers may shoot over it, the other part Man high, to secure Men from the shot of their Enemies.
- Bauk, A piece of Fir unslit, from four to ten Inches square, and of many lengths.
- Bear, Timber is said to Bear at its whole length, when neither a Brick-wall, or Posts, &c. stand between the ends of it. But if either a Brick-wall or Posts, &c. be Trimmed up to that Timber, than it is said to Bear only at the di⯑stance between the Brick-wall or Post, and ei⯑ther end of the Timber. Thus Carpenters ask what
- Bearing such a piece of Timber has? The an⯑swer is 10, 12, 15, &c. Foot, according to the length of the whole Timber, or else according to the distance between either end of the Timber, and a
- Bearer, viz. a Post or Brick-wall that is Trim⯑med up between the two ends of a piece of Timber, to shorten its Bearing.
- Bond, When Workmen say make good Bond, they mean fasten the two or more pieces of Tim⯑ber well together, either with Tennanting and Mortessing, or Duff-tailing, &c.
- [158] Binding Joysts, See Trimmers, or Plate 10. bbb.
- Brace, See Plate 11. bbb.
- Brad, is a Nail to Floor Rooms with, they are about the size of a Ten-penny Nail, but have not their heads made with a shoulder over their shank, as other Nails, but are made pretty thick towards the upper end, that the very top of it may be driven into, and buried in the Board they nail down, so that the tops of these Brads will not catch (as the Heads of Nails would) the Thrums of the Mops when the Floor is wash⯑ing. You may see them at most Ironmongers.
- Break in, Carpenters with their Ripping Chis⯑sel do often Break in to Brick-walls; that is they cut holes, but indeed more properly break the Bricks by force, and make their hole to their size and form.
- Bressummer, See Plate 11. CC, D, FF, hh.
- Bring up, A Term most used amongst Carpen⯑ters, when they discourse Bricklayers; and then they say, Bring up the Foundation so high, Bring up such a Wall, Bring up the Chimnies, & [...]. which is as much as to say, Build the Founda⯑tion so high, Build the Wall, Build the Chim⯑nies, &c.
- Butment, The piece of Ground in the Yard marked G, in Plate 10. is a Butment from the rest of the Ground-plot.
- Buttress, That stands on the outside a Wall to support it.
C.
- CAmber, A piece of Timber cut Arching, [...] as when a weight considerable, shall be s [...] upon it, it may in length of time be reduced [...] a straight▪
- [159] Cantilevers, Pieces of Wood framed into the Front or other sides of an House to sustain the Molding and Eaves over it.
- Carcass, is (as it were) the Skelleton of an House, before it is Lath'd and Plastered.
- Cartouses. Ornamented Corbels.
- Cleer Story Window, Windows that have no Transum in them.
- Commander, See Numb. 7. Plate 8. K. and § 10.
- Coping over, is a sort of hanging over, but not square to its upright, but Bevelling on its under side, till it end in an edge.
- Corbel, A piece of Timber set under another piece of Timber, to discharge its Bearing.
- Crab, The Engine described Plate 9. E. and BCD several of its Appurtenances, viz. BCC Snatch Blocks. D Levers. Its Office is to draw heavy Timber to a considerable height.
- Crow, See Plate 8. L. its Office is to remove heavy Timber, and therefore for strength is made of Iron.
- Crown Post, See Plate 11. H. Also the King-Piece, or Joggle-Piece.
D
- DIscharge, A Brick-wall or a Post trim'd up to a piece of Timber over charg'd for its Bearing, is a Discharge to that Bearing.
- Dormer, Plate 11. QR.
- Double Quarters, See Quarter.
- Draft, The Picture of an intended Building discribed on Paper, whereon is laid down the devised Divisions and Partitions of every Room in its due proportion to the whole Building, See Numb. 7. § 13.
- Drag, A Door is said to Drag when either by its ill Hanging on its Hinges, or by the ill boar⯑ding of the Room, the bottom edge of the Door [160] rides (in its sweep) upon the Floor. See § 19.
- Dragon-beams, are two strong Braces or Struts that stands under a Bressummer, meeting in a an angle upon the shoulder of the King-piece. In Plate 11, ii are Dragon beams.
- Draw knife, described Plate 8. E and § 5.
- Draw Pins, described Plate 8. F and § 6.
- Drug, described Plate 9. E and § 12.
E
- ENter, When Tennants are put into Mortes⯑ses, they are said to Enter the Mortesses.
- Enterduce, or Entertise, described Plate 11. CC.
F.
- FEather-edge, Boards, or Planks, that have one edge thinner than another are called Feather-edge stuff.
- Fir-Pole, A sort of stuff cut off of the Fir-tree, small and long, commonly from 10 to 16 Foot. They are sometimes used in slight Buil⯑dings, to serve instead of Bauks and Quarters.
- Flyers, are Stairs made of an Oblong square Figure, whose fore and backsides are parallel to each other, and so are their ends; the second of these Flyers stands parallel behind the first, the third behind the second, and so are said to fly off from one another.
- Floor, in Carpentry, it is as well taken for the Fram'd work of Timber, as the Boarding over it.
- Foot-pace, is a part of a pair of Stairs, where⯑on after four or six steps you arrive to a broad place, where you make two or three paces be⯑fore you ascend another step; thereby to ease the legs in ascending the rest of the steps.
- Furrings, The making good of the Rafters Feet in the Cornice.
[161]G
- GAble, or Gable-end, in Plate 11. IIK.
- Gain, The bevelling shoulder of a Joyst, or other Stuff: It is used for the Lapping of the end of a Joyst, &c. upon a Trimmer or Girder, and then the thickness of the shoulder is cut in⯑to the Trimmer also Bevilling upwards, that it may just receive that Gain, and so the Joyst and Timber lye even and level upon their superfi⯑cies. This way of working is used in a Floor or Hearth.
- Girder, described Plate 10 QQ.
- Ground Plate, described Plate 11 A.
- Ground Plate, The piece of Ground a Building is to be erected upon.
H.
- HAng over, See Batter.
- Hips, described Plate 11. EE, They are also called Principal Rafters, and Sleepers.
- Hook-pin, described Plate 8. F.
I.
- JAck, described Plate 8. M. An Engine used for the removing and commodious placing of great Timber.
- Jack-Plane, called so by Carpenters, but is in⯑deed the same that Joyners call the Fore-Plane. See Numb. 4. § 2. and Plate 4. B. 1.
- Jaums, Door Posts are so called: So are the upright outer Posts of a Window frame, See Plate 11. aaaa, cc, nn.
- Joggle-piece, See Plate 11. H.
- Joysts, See Plate 10. aaaa.
- [162] Juffers, Stuff, about 4 or 5 inches square, and of several Lengths.
K.
- KIng-piece, See Joggle-piece.
- Kerf, See Explanation of Terms in Numb. 6.
- Knee, A piece of Timber growing angular⯑ly, or crooked, that is, a great Branch shooting out near the top of the Trunk of the Tree, and is so cut that the Trunk and the Branch make an angle; as in Plate 11. EL, being made [...] of one piece of stuff: It is called a Knee-piece ▪ or Knee-rafter.
L.
- LAnding-place, is the uppermost Step of a [...] of Stairs, viz. The Floor of the Room [...] ascend upon.
- Skirts, Projecting of the Eaves.
- Level, See Plate 8. G and § 7.
- Lever, See Plate 9. D.
- Lintel, In Brick-buildings Carpenters lay [...] long piece of Timber over the Peers, to Trim with the Window-Frame; as well to bear the thickness of the Brick-wall above it, as to make Bond with the sides of the Walls.
- Long-plane, The same that Joyners call a Joy [...] ⯑ter. See Numb. 4. B. 2. § 4.
- Luthern, See Dormer.
M.
- MOdillon, See Cantelever.
- Molding, Moldings are stuck upon th [...] edges of stuf [...] to Ornament it: As on Chimn [...] pieces, the inner edges of Window-fram [...] Shelves, &c. See Numb. 4. § 9.
- [163] Munnion, the upright Post that divide the se⯑veral Lights in a Window-frame, are called Munnions, See Plate 11. qqq.
N.
- NEwel, the upright post that a pair of Winding-stairs are turned about.
P.
- PItch, The Angle a Gable-end is set to, is called the Pitch of the Gable-end.
- Planchier, An Ornament to which the Cornice is fastned.
- Plate. A piece of Timber upon which some considerable weight is framed, is called a Plate. Hence Ground-Plate, Plate 11. A. Window-plate, &c.
- Plumb-line, described Plate 8. H § 8.
- Posts, See Principal-Posts.
- Prick-Posts, Posts that are framed into Bres⯑summers, between Principal [...]Posts, for the strength⯑ning of the Carcass.
- Principal-Posts, The corner Posts of a Carcass, See Plate 11. B. B.
- Profile, The same with Ground-Plot.
- Projecture, is a jetting over the upright of a Building: Thus Balconies project into the Street.
- Puncheons, Short pieces of Timber placed un⯑der some considerable weight to support it.
- Pudlaies, Pieces of Stuff to do the Office of Hand-Spikes.
- Purlins, See Plate 11. NN.
Q.
- QUarters are single and double. Single Quarters are Sawen stuff, two Inches thick, and four Inches broad. The Double Quarters are sawen [...] Four Inches square.
- [164] Quartering, In the Front of the third Story in Plate 11. All the Work, except the Principal Posts, Jaums, and Window-frames, viz. the up⯑right Triming, and the Braces is called Quarter⯑ing.
- Quirk, A piece taken out of any regular Ground-plot, or Floor: For example, the whole Ground-plot ABCD. in Plate 10. is a regular Ground-plot. But if the piece K be taking out of it, K shall be a Quirk.
R.
- RAster, See Plate 11. cccc.
- Rail, Rails stand over and under Banni⯑sters of Balconies, Stair-Cases, &c.
- Raiser, is a Board set on edge under the Fore-side of a step.
- Raising-piece, Pieces that lye under the Beams upon Brick or Timber by the side of the House.
- Rellish, See Projecture.
- Return, Either of the adjoining sides of the Front of an House, or Ground-plot, is called a Return-side, as in Plate 10. the Front is AB, the Return-sides to this Front is AC and BD.
- Ridge, the meeting of the Rafters on bot [...] sides the House is called the Ridge.
- Ripping-Chissel, See Plate 8. D § 4.
- Roof, The Covering of a House: But the word is used in Carpentery for the Triming work of the Covering.
S.
- SCribe, See Number 6. in Explanation of Terms.
- Shake, Such stuff as is crackt either with the heat of the Sun, or the droughth of the wind, is called Shaken Stuff.
- [165] Shingles, Small pieces of Wood used to cover Houses with, instead of Tiles or Slates.
- Shreadings, See Plate 11. the lower end of the Principal Rafters markt rr are called Shrea⯑dings, or Furrings.
- Sleepers, The same with Purlins.
- Snatch-blocks, See Plate 9. BCC.
- Socket-Chissel, Described Plate 8. and § 3.
- Soils, or Sells, are either Ground-Sells described Plate 11. A. or Window Sells, which are the bot⯑tom Pieces of Window Frames.
- Stair-Case, The inclosure of a pair of Stairs, whether it be with Walls, or with Walls and Railes and Bannisters, &c.
- Stancheons, See Puncheons.
- Strut, See Dragon-beam.
- Summer, In Plate 10. PP is a Summer, where into the Girders are Tennanted.
T.
- TEn-Foot-Rod, See § 13.
- Transom, The Piece that is fram'd a-cross a double Light-window. See Plare 11. PP.
- Trim, When workmen fit a piece into other Work, they say they Trim in a piece.
- Trimmers, See Plate 10. bbbb.
- Truss, See King-piece, or Joggle-piece.
- Tusk, A Bevel shoulder, made to strengthen the Tennant of Joyst, which is let into the Girder.
V.
- VAlley Rafter, See Back, or Hip-molding ▪
[166]W.
- WEll-hole, See Plate 10. I.
- Wall-Plate, In Plate 10. AC, BD and NO are Wall-Plates.
Thus much of Carpentry. The next Exercises will (God willing) be upon the Art of Turn⯑ing, Soft Wood, Hard Wood, Ivory, Brass, Iron, &c. With several Inventions of Oval-work▪ Rose-work, Rake-work, Angular-work, &c.
[]
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
Applied to the ART of TURNING.
[195]§ VIII. Of the Mawl.
THE Mawl is marked K in Plate 13. The Figure of it there is Description suffi⯑cient: Its Office is to knock and un⯑knock the Wedge in the Puppets; and to knock upon the back of the Cleaving Knife, when they split their Wood for their Work. The Joyner's Mallet would supply the Office of this Tool; but use has made the Mawl more handy for them: Besides when one is batter'd to shivers, they can quickly, of a Chump of Wood, ac⯑commodate themselves with another.
§ IX. Of the Hatchet, Draw-knife and Cleaving-knife.
THe Hatchet is marked L in Plate 4. It is of the same sort that Joyners use; which I described Numb. 5. § 25. and therefore refer you thither. And the Draw-knife is described in Numb. 7. [...] 5. Plate 8. marked E. The Cleaving-knife marked M in Plate 13. needs no other De⯑scription than that Figure.
§ X. Of the Chopping-Block.
[196]THe Chopping-Block is marked N in Plate 13. It is made of a piece of Elm-Tree placed with its Grain upwards and downwards as it grew. It hath three Leges in it, that stand stradling out from the underside of the Block to the Floor, and of such an height, as the Work⯑man may have most Command of the Work. See the Figure. Sometimes Turnners use instead of it, a piece of the Trunk of a Tree, of about a Foot and an half, or two Foot, in length from the Ground, or more or less.
§ XI. Of the Callippers.
THe Callippers is marked O in Plate 13. As common Compasses (described Numb. 6. § 32.) are for measuring Distances upon a plain Superficies; so Callippers measure the distance of any round Cilindrick Conical Body, either in their Extremity, or any part less than the Ex⯑tream: So that when Workmen use them, they open the two points aa to their described width▪ and Turn so much stuff off the intended place, till the two points of the Callippers fit just over their Work; so shall their Work have just the Diameter in that place, as is the distance be⯑tween the two points of the Callippers, be it either Feet or Inches, &c.
§ XII. Of the Drill-Bench.
THere is yet another Tool, or rather a Machine used by some Turnners, called a Drill-Bench. It is described in Plate 14. aaaa a thick Board, about three Inches thick, five Inches broad, and eighteen Inches long, bb two Stiles placed to⯑wards either end, and fastned upright. In the hithermost Stile is a Coller described § 7. and [197] Plate 13. H. or any of the other Collers: And in the further Stile is fitted a square flat tempe⯑red piece of Steel having a Center-hole in the middle of it, and is placed just against the Cen⯑ter or middle point of the Hole of the Coller, cc the Rowler, whose hither end is Turned away, so as it just fit into the Coller, and at the further end of it, it hath a temper'd Steel [...], to be placed in the Center-hole: And in the middle of the hither end of it, it hath a Piercer-Pit fastned straight in, so that it lie in a true straight Line, with the Axis of the Rowler. Of these Rowlers they have several, and Bits of different sizes fit⯑ted into them, that upon all occasions they may chuse one to fit their purpose.
On the under-side, about the middle of the Bench, is fitted and fastned athwart it a square Iron Coller, deep enough to reach through the Cheeks of the Lathe, and so much deeper as it may receive a Wooden Wedge, such a one as be⯑longs to one of the Puppets: And by the force and strength of the Wedge, the whole Drill-bench is drawn down and fastned athwart the Cheeks of the Lathe.
When it is used, it stands athwart the Cheeks of the Lathe (as aforesaid) with the point or end of the Bit towards you; and then the String being turned twice or thrice about the Rowler, will (with Treading on the Treddle) turn the Rowler and its Bit forcibly about, and cause it to enter swiftly into a piece of Wood that shall be prest forwards upon the Bit.
When they use it, they hold the piece of Wood they intend to Drill, or Pierce, fast in both their Hands, right before them, and press it forwards upon the Piercer-Bit; so that by its running about, it cuts a straight round hole into the Wood, of what length they please.
[198]But while the Pole is rising after every Tread, they press not against the Piercer-Bit, so that it is dis-ingaged from doing its Office in the Wood; but in that while, they nimbly give the Wood a turn in their hands, of about one third part of its Circumference; which makes the Bit very suc⯑cessive Tread, go the straighter through the mid⯑dle of the Wood: And thus they reiterate Treads, and keep the Wood turning in their Hands, till the Bit is enter'd deep enough.
Thus much of the Tools used in common Turn⯑ning: I shall proceed to the Working a Pattern or two in soft Wood; which being well under⯑stood, may render a Practicer capable of most common Work.
§ XIII. Of Turning a Cilinder in soft Wood.
THe soft Wood Turners Use is commonly ei⯑ther Maple, Alder, Birch, Beech, Elm, Oak, Fir, &c. and for some particular purposes each of these sorts are best.
The first Pattern we purpose shall be a Cilin⯑der two Inches over, and eight Inches long: Therefore you must chuse a piece of Wood [...] lest two Inches and a quarter over, lest you wa [...] Stuff to work upon: Nay, if your Stuff prove shaken, or otherwise unsound, or your Center be not very exactly pitcht, you may want yet more Stuff; and that according as it proves more or less faulty, or as the Centers are more unequally pitcht. But supposing the Stuff good [...] you may take a piece of two Inches and a quar⯑ter over, as I said before, and about ten or ele⯑ven Inches long. For though the length of the Cilinder be but eight Inches, yet you must cut your Stuff long enough to make a Groove at one end of it besides, for the String to run in. If your Stuff be somewhat too big for your [199] Scantlin, and not round enough to go into the Lathe, you must Hew it pretty near with the Hatchet to make it sizable, and afterwards smoothen it nearer with a Draw-knife, as you were taught, Numb. 7. § 5.
But if you have not Stuff at hand near your size, then you must Saw off your length from a Billet, or some other piece of Stuff, and with the Cleaving-knife and the Mawl, split it into a square piece near the size, and with the Draw-knife [...]ound off the Edges to make it fit for the L [...]the.
Then set your Puppets, and wedge them right up, so as the Points of your Spikes stand pretty near the length of your Work assunder, and move the Pole, so as the end of it may hang [...] between the Pikes, and also fit the Iron Pin [...] the Treddle into a proper Hole in the Cross-Treddle, so as the end of the Treddle may draw the String below the Work into pretty near a [...]traight Line with the string above the Work: [...]nd take the Work in your Right Hand, and [...]ut it beyond the String before you, and with [...] Left Hand wind the String below the Work, [...] once about the Work, lest it should be too strong for your shallow Centers, as you shall understand by and by, and then with a pretty strength press the middle of one end of your Work over the Point of one of the Pikes, and so [...]ke a hole in your Work for one of the Cen⯑ [...]er holes: Then screw your Pike wider or closer, according as the length of your Work requires, [...]d pitch the other end of your Work upon the other Pike also, and screw your Work a little [...]ightly up: Then try how the Centers are pitcht, by Treading the Treddle lightly down; and if you find the Centers are well pitcht, you may [...]thout more ado screw up your Work [...] tight: [200] But if your Centers, or either of them be not well pitcht, you must alter them. You may kn [...]w when they are well pitcht, by treading softly upon your Treddle, and holding your Fin⯑ger steddy on the Rest, direct the point of it pretty close to the Work: For if in a Revolu⯑tion of your Work, its Out-side keeps it an equal distance from the end of your Finger, you may conclude your Work is well pitcht. But if you find one side of your Work comes nearer your Finger than the other side, you must with your Flat Chissel, or Gouge, (or what is nearest at hand) knock softly, or hard, upon that side that comes nearest to your Finger, till you have forc'd the Pikes into the true Centers at the end of your Work; and then you may boldly screw it hard up: But you must be sure to screw it hard up; because it is soft Wood you purpose to work up⯑on, and the strength of the Pole may endanger the drawing or removing the Centers, if the Pikes have not good hold of them.
Having found your Centers, take your Work again off the Pikes, and wind the String once or twice more about your Work, that your String (as I said in Numb. 10. § 1. when I wrote of the String) may the better command it, and then wind off or no more String at the end of your Pole, or end of your Treddle, or both, if your Work require it, till the Pole draws the Treddle up a little above half the length of the Legs of the Lathe. For about the height your Leg may without sudden trying, command the Pole down again.
But before you begin to work upon the Stuff, I shall inform you how to Tread the Treddle, in which you may observe this General Rule; That the nearer the Fore-end of the Treddle you Tread, the easier you bring down the Pole; but then [201] the Pole in its Spring rases your Leg the higher, and may draw the upper side of the your Thigh against the underside of the Cheek of the Lathe, and with reiterated Risings Gawl, and also tire your Thigh.
Place therefore your Foot steddy upon the Treddle, so far forward as you can, to avoid the Poles rising from drawing your Thigh against the underside of the Lathe; and Tread the Treadle nimbly down, but not quite so low as to knock against the Floor: Then abate the weight of your Tread, and let the Pole draw the Treddle up, but still keep your Foot steddy, and lightly Bearing upon the Treddle: For then your succeeding Treads will prove easier to your Leg and Thigh, and you will with your Foot the better and quicker command the Treddle. Then Tread a⯑gain nimbly down as before, and keep this train of Treading till your Work be finish'd, or that you may have occasion to stop and exaime how rightly you proceed.
In all small Work the Tread is lightly and nimbly performed; but in large and heavy work the Tread comes slow and heavily down.
This being premised, you may begin with your Gouge; lay the round side of it upon the Rest, and take the Handle of it in your Right Hand, and lay the Fore and Middle Fingers of your Left Hand upon the Hollow of the Gouge near the Work, mounting the Edge about a quarter of an Inch above the Axis of your Work, and sinking your Right Hand a little; for in this position the Gouge cuts best: And thus cut down on your Work near one end, a Groove for your String to run in: The Groove may be about an Inch, or an Inch and an half long; but it mat⯑ters not much what depth. Then slip your String into the Groove, and if you find the String [202] will not slip easily, you may put your Foot un⯑der the Treddle and lift it a little up, that the String when no weight is hanged to it, may slide the easier into the Groove.
And by the way you may take notice, that the deeper you cut down the Groove, the oftner will your Work come about every Tread; be⯑cause the String that comes down every Tread, measure a small Circumference oftener than it does a greater Circumference: But then the work is not so strongly carried about; because it hath a less portion of the String to command it. This I hint, not that in this our small proposed Pat⯑tern it is very considerable: For if you only cut the Groove down but so low as there may be a Shoulder at the end, and another against the Work, to keep the String from slipping out of the Groove▪ it will be sufficient: But in heavy Work this Groove ought to be cut with dis⯑cretion.
Now come to the Forming of your Work, and hold your Gouge, as you were taught before, but somewhat lightly against your Work, begin⯑ning at one end, and sliding your Gouge gradu⯑ally to the other, cutting with its Edge all the way you go, and bearing somewhat stiff against the Work every Tread you make on the Treddle [...] And withdrawing it again a little lightly from the work every Spring of the Pole. And thus by Use you must habituate your self to let the edge of your [...] bear upon the Work when the Pole and Treddle comes down, and to draw it back [...]st off the Work, as the Pole and Treddle goes up. And thus you must continue till you have r [...]gh-wrought all your work from end to end.
If you have not at first brought your Work [...] that is, if you have not gone deep [...] with your Gouge to take off all the Ri [...]sings [203] of the Stuff the Draw-knife left, even with the smallest part of your Work, you must in like manner (as before) work it over again. But you must have a special Care you take not too much Stuff away on any part of the whole Work: For this proposed Pattern being a Cilin⯑der, if you take but a small matter to much a⯑way from any part, and make it smaller than your given measure there, the whole Work will be spoiled, as being smaller than the proposed Diameter; which to know, you may by open⯑ing the Points of your Callippers to two Inches on your Rule (the proposed Diameter of your Cilinder) try if the Points at that distance will just slip over the deepest Grooves of your Work (for we will not suppose that the Grooves are of an equal depth with the Rough-working of the Gouge) without straining the Joint, for then your Work is just sizeable: If not, work over again as before, &c. But we will now suppose you have not taken too much away, but have made a due process with your Gouge. Therefore now proceed, and use a Flat Chissel, about an Inch and an half broad, to take off the Irregu⯑larities the Gouge left.
Take the Handle of it in your Right Hand, as you did the Gouge, and claspsing the Blade of it in your Left Hand, lean it steddy upon the Rest, holding the Edge a little aslant over the Work, so as a Corner of the thin side of the Chissel may bear upon the Rest, and that the Flat side of the Chissel may make a small Angle with the Rest, and consequently with the Work; (which is pa⯑rallel to the Rest) for should you set the edge of the Chissel parallel to the Work, it might run too fast into the Work, and dawk it. Therefore you must set the Chissel in such a position, that the lower, Corner, or near the lower Corner of the [204] edge, may cut lightly upon the Work: But this position is best described by a Figure, which to that purpose I have inserted in Plate 14. at O, where you may perceive in, or near, what posi⯑tion the Chissel must be set to cut the Work; and how the edge of the Chissel ab lying aslant the Work, and the further Corner of the edge of the Chissel b being somewhat mounted, as the Work comes about, the Bottom, or near the Bottom, of the edge of the Chissel is only capa⯑ble to cut a narrow Shaving off the Work: And just in this manner you must keep the Chissel steddy bearing upon the Work, as the Pole comes down, and withdrawing it from the Work as the Pole Springs up (as you were taught to use the Gouge) and at the same time sliding it forwards from one end of the Work to the other, till it be wrought down all the way to its true Diameter between the points of the Callippers: For then a straight Ruler applied to your Work, the outside of your purposes Cilinder will be formed.
Only the ends must be cut down square to the length: Therefore open the points of your Com⯑passes to the distance of eight Inches on your Rule, and prick that distance hard off upon your Work, that the points of your Compasses may leave visible marks, by placing one point as near one end as you can, to leave Stuff enough to cut straight down all the way; that is, to cut it square down at right Angles with the outside of the Work. Which to do, you must hold the Handle of the Flat Chissel in your Right Hand (as before) and clasp the Blade of it in your Left, and lay one of the thin sides of it upon the Rest, so that the edge may stand upright, or ve⯑ry near upright against the Work. Then sink your Right Hand somewhat below the Level of the Rest, that the lower Corner of the edge of [205] the Chissel may mount, and being thrust steddy against the Work, just in the mark one Point of the Compasses made, Tread the Treddle, and cut a pretty deep Circle into the Stuff. But you must have a care you do not direct the cutting Corner of the Chissel inwards, but rather out⯑wards, lest you make the end hollow instead of Flat: For if you do take off too little at first, you may by degrees cut it down to a Flat after⯑wards. As you cut deeper into the Stuff, you must turn the Flat of the Chissel, and with it cut down the Shoulder just at the end on the out⯑side the mark, for else that may hinder the Cor⯑ner of the edge of the Chissel for coming at the Work.
Note, That if you hold not the edge of the Chissel truly before the Work, but direct it in⯑wards, and if you hold it not very steddy, and have a good guidance of it, the quick coming about of the Work, may draw the edge of the Chissel into it inwards and run a dawk on Cilin⯑der, like the Grooves of a Screw, and so spoil your Work: For being once wrought to the true size, you cannot afterwards take any more off to cleanse it, &c.
The other end must be cut down as this.
§ 14. Of Turning Flat Boards.
[206]IF your Board be thick enough, you may boar a round Hole in the middle of it; and turn a Mandrel with a Pin a very little Tapering, to fit hard and stiff into the round Hole: And if the Hole and Pin be proportionable in size to the weight of the Board, the Pin will carry it about. But you must be very careful the Hole be board⯑ed exactly straight through the middle, and not inclining on either side the Board, more to any part of the Verge than to another; but that the middle of the Hole be exactly the Center of the Board the whole thickness through. This Pin-Mandrel is described Numb. 11. § 6. and Plate 13.
If your Board be not thick enough to be fast⯑ned upon a Pin-Mandrel, or that your Work will not admit of an Hole to be bored through the middle of it, you may use the Flat-Mandrel de⯑scribed Plate 12. F 2. And then you must with your Compasses find the Center on the backside of the Round Board (with several proffers if need require) till you have found it, and prick there an Hole for a mark: Then open the points of your Compasses to about the thickness of a Shil⯑ling wider than the Semidiameter of the Flat-Mandrel; and with the points of your Compasses at that distance describe a Circle on the back⯑side of the Board to be turned, by placing one Foot in the prick-mark, and turning about the other Foot. By this Circle you may pitch the Center of the B [...]rd exactly upon the Center of the Flat-Mandrel [...] points of the Compasses being opened about the thickness of a Shilling wider than the Semidiameter of the Flat-Mandrel: will [207] (when you have pitcht the Center of the Board on the Center of the Mandrel) place the outer Verge of the Mandrel the thickness of a Shil⯑ [...]ing round about within the Circle described on [...]he the backside of the Board: And when it is [...]hus pitcht, you may, by laying the Board flat [...]own, knock upon the Rowler end of the Man⯑ [...]rel, and drive the Pegs in the flat of the Man⯑ [...]rel into the Board, and so hold it steddy upon [...]he Mandrel: Then find the Center on the Fore⯑ [...]ide of the Board also, as you were taught to [...]ind the Center on the backside, and put your Board and Mandrel upon the Pikes of the Pup⯑ [...]ets, and screw them hard up, as you have been [...]ught before.
Sometimes Turners use this Flat-Mandrel with⯑out Pegs, and then they chalk the Flat side of it very well, and clap the backside of the Board to it, which will (if the Board to be Turned be [...]ot too heavy, but be well screwed up between the Pikes) keep the Board steddy from slipping from its set-position, till you work it.
If in going about of your Work you find it Wabble, that is, that one side of the Flat incline either to the Right or Left Hand, you must with soft Blows of an Hammer, or other Tool at hand, set it to right, and then again screw it hard up: For so often as you thus strike upon the Verge to set the Board true, you force the Steel point of the Pike more or less (according to the softness of the Wood) towards that side of the Verge you strike upon; and therefore you may perceive a reason for screwing up the Pike so oft as you knock upon the outer Verge of the Board.
But we will now suppose the Board well pitcht and fastned on the Mandrel and Center; there⯑ [...]re take the Side-Rest described in § 1. Numb. [208] 10. ¶ 7. and Plate 82. at the Figure e, and fg, and fit it so into the Lathe, as the upper edge of it may stand range, or parallel to the side of the Board you are to work upon, and so wedge it hard up.
Now you must come to use the Hook, de⯑scribed Numb. 12. § 5. and Plate 15. For this Tool is most commodious to serve you instead of the Gouge, when the Work stands athwart the Pikes; because the end of the Blade of this Tool being on its Flat side turned into a Circu⯑lar Figure, and that Circular Figure turned a little backwards, one of the Edges of this Cir⯑cular Figure will conveniently (though the Tool be not held straight before the Work) come at any part of the Flat of the Board, and so by the Circulation of the Board against the Edge of the Hook, cut off its irregular Extube⯑rances.
In the using of this Tool, you must place the end of the Handle under your Arm-pit, and hold your Left Hand on the upper side of the Blade of the Tool close to the Rest, and your Right Hand close besides your Left Hand under the Tool, and with both your hands clasp the Tool hard, and press it steddy upon the Rest, and at the same time hold it also steddy, and yet light⯑ly bearing against the Work, that by the swift coming about of the Work it draw not the Edge of the thin and tender Blade of the Hook into it.
You must not hold the Blade of this Tool per⯑pendicularly before the Work, viz. parallel to the Pikes, but aslant, so as somewhat above the middle of the Convex of the Hook may touch against the Work. You may begin at the Verge, and so lay several Grooves close by one another [209] till you come to the Center: But you must ob⯑serve (as was said before in the Cilinder) that you lay all your Grooves of an equal depth into the Board: For if you lay one deeper than the rest, and an Hollow may not properly be in that place, you must again go over your work with your Hook, to work that dawk out: And then perhaps your Board may be made too thin for its intended purpose. But this Craft of the Hand must be acquired with some continued Use and Practice, which will better inform your Judgment what Errours you may be subject to commit, than many words (though significant) upon this Doctrine. And this I'm sure I found, when I first practised upon Turning.
Having thus with the Hook rough-plain'd the Board (for this Hook does in Turning the Office of a Fore-plain in Joynery) you must use the Tri⯑angular Grooving Tool, described in Turning § 5. Plate 15. and with one of its Edges smoothen down the ridges the Hook left on the Board.
But if your Work require any Molding near the Verge, or any other part of it, you must work that Molding as near as you can with the Hook, especially where Hollows are required; for that cuts faster and smoother than any other Tool, and most artificially forms an Hollow.
If a Flat be to be laid in the Board, you must first use the Triangular Point Tool, and with it strike so many Threds as the breadth of the Flat requires, and lay each Thred almost so deep into the Board as you intend the Flat shall be: And afterwards to smoothen it down, you must use the Flat Grooving Tool, or a Flat Chissel, and with either of them finish the Flat to its intended Depth and Breadth. And where a fine Thred, or Circle, is to be laid in the Board, [210] you must use the Triangular Point Tool. And thus as you see occasion, you must accommo⯑date your self with a Tool apt and proper for your purpose, viz. such a Tool as will most conveniently come at, and from the intended Work.
[figure]
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
Applied to the ART of TURNING.
[211]§ XV. Of Turning Hard Wood, and Ivory.
IF the Wood be very hard, as Ebony, Lignum Vitae; or if it be Ivory, Bone, or Horn they are to Turn; they neither use the same Tools they do for soft Wood; because their edge is to tender: Nor do they use their other Tools as they do soft Wood. For the Tools made for Hard Wood are made with a stronger Point, Edge, &c. than they are for soft, as was said in Turning § 5. And they use them differently, because for Turning Soft Wood, they hold the Edge of the Gouge and Flat Chis⯑sel, at some considerable Distance from the Rest, mounting the Edge at such an Angle as will best cut off from the Work, as a great Chip as they can, or desire. And as they Turn the Work smaller, they guide the Chissel to follow the Work: But for Hard Wood, they raise the Rest near the Horizontal Plain of the Axis of the Work, setting it as close as conveniently they can to their Work, and lay their Tool flat and [212] steddy upon the Rest; which being hard held in this position, does by the comming about of the Work, cut or tear off all the Extuberances the Tool touches in the sweep of the Work. So that (as I said before) as in Turning soft Wood the Tool does somewhat follow the Work; in Turning hard Wood the Work comes to the Tool: And therefore you may perceive a great reason they have to keep the Tool steddy: For should it in one sweep of the Work be thrust nearer the Axis in any place, it would there take off more than it should.
Having prepared the Work fit for the Lathe, either with Hewing, or as some Hard Woods and Ivory may require, with Rasping, they pitch it between the Pikes, as before has been shewn, or such Work as it may be, as Boxes, and generally all Hollow Work, they fit into Collers, either by screwing the Mandrel on an Iron Axis; or fitting it with some other of the Mandrels described in Turning § 6. as is proper for it: As sometimes they fit the Work tight in⯑to an Hollow Mandrel, and the tight fitting in holds it whilst it is working upon: And some⯑times, if the Work be very thin, they fix it on a Flat Mandrel with Cement; But they are al⯑ways either to chuse one of the Mandrels descri⯑bed already in Turning § 6. or else contrive (as they often do) some other Mandrel conve⯑nient to the opportunity that accidentally their Business may require. For the Work (whether it be pitcht on the Pikes, or fitted into Hollow Mandrels, or otherwise) must run very steddy and tight.
[figure]
Afterwards with edg'd Grooving Tools of a pro⯑per Breadth, they cut down and smoothen away the Extuberances left by the Sharp-pointed Groo⯑ving Tool, or the Triangular Grooving Tool, and bring the Work into a perfect shape. Which done, they smoothen the work with the Edge of a piece of a Blade of a broken Knife, basil'd a⯑way, by following the Work with it: That is, holding the basil'd Edge of the Knife close against the Work while it comes about: For then its sharp Edge scrapes or shaves off the little rough⯑ness the grosser Tools left upon the Work.
Lastly, they hold either a piece of Seal-skin or Dutch Reeds (whose outer Skin or Filme somewhat finely cuts) pretty hard against the Work, and so make it smooth enough to polish.
Hard Wood they polish with Bees-wax, viz. by holding Bees-wax against it, till it have suffi⯑ciently toucht it all over; and press it hard in⯑to it by holding hard the edge of a Flat piece of hard Wood made sizable and suitable to the Work they work upon, as the Work is going a⯑bout. Then they set a Gloss on it with a very dry Woollen Rag, lightly smear'd with Sallad Oyl.
But Ivory they polish with Chalk and Water, and afterwards dry it with a Woollen Rag, and a light touch of Sallad Oyl; which at last they rub off again with a dry Woollen Rag, and so set a Gloss on it.
[214]If there be a Screw to be made upon the thin Edge of an Ivory, or Hard Wood, or Brass Box, they use the Screw-Mandrel, and its Socket, de⯑scribed in Turning 6. ¶ 4. and 5. as is shewn at the latter end of that Section.
§ XVI. Of Turning long and slender Work of Ivory.
SOme Turners to shew their Dexterity in Turn⯑ing, and make others that know not the way how it is [...] the [...] Skill, T [...]rn long and slender [...] Ivory, as small as an Hay-stalk, [...] perhaps a Foot or more long: Which [...] they cut a piece of Ivory to its intended l [...]ngth, but strong enough to bear working till they bring it to as small a Cilinder as they can; which being thus forwarded, they place a Joint Coller (as is described in Turning § 17.) made small and fit for their purpose, just in the middle of their Work: Only that their Work may Bear at a smaller length, and consequently be stronger for being thus supported while it is Turned yet smaller. Then they place other Collers between the Piles, and the middle Coller, and Turn the whole Cilinder slender [...]et. And thus by placing Collers where ever they find the Work buckle, they (as aforesaid) with Sharp Tools, tender touches▪ somewhat a loose and fine String, weak Bow, and great care and diligence work the whole Cilinder down as small as they list, either with Moldings, or other Work upon it, as best likes them.
The properest Lathe to Turn this slender Work in, is the Turn-Bench described § 18. Plate 16.
§ XVII. Of the Brasiers Lathe and Turning Tools; and their manner of using them.
[215]BRrasiers that Turn Andirons, Pots, Kettles, &c. have their Lathe made different from the Common Turners Lathe, as you may see in Plate 16. at A, where the Cheeks, Puppets and Rests, &c. are much stronger and the Pikes stron⯑ger and longer than those the common Turners use. Their Edge Tools which they call Hooks, are also of a different shape, as the Figures of them described at B 1, B 2, B 3. in the said Plate shew, as being bent backwards and forwards towards the cutting end, somewhat like an z. And as the common Turners work with a round String made of Gut, as hath been described in Turning § 1. ¶ 14. The Brasiers work with a Flat Leather Thong, which wrapping close and tight about the Rowler of their Mandrel, com⯑mands it the easier and more forciably about. Their Thong runs between the Cheeks of the Lathe.
The whole Lathe, and its parts, are made so strong, because the Matter they Turn being Met⯑tal, is much heavier than Wood, and conse⯑quently with forciable coming about, would (if the Lathe were slight) make it tremble, and so spoil the Work; as hath been said before.
The reason why the Hook is so turned back⯑wards, and again forwards, towards the end, is, that they may the better direct the Edge of it as much below the Horizontal Plain of the Pikes as they list, the better (in many cases) to come at the Work: For contrary to Soft Wood, Hard Wood and Ivory Turners, they always dip the end of their Hook below the Rest, that so the Hook resting very steddy upon the Rest, and also against one of the Iron Pins standing upright in [216] the Rest, and held very steddy forwards to the Work, the strong coming about of the Work a⯑gainst the strong Edge of the Hook, scrapes off the extuberant Mettle lying in that Sweep.
I need no further describe the Lathe, and other Tools that belong to Brasiers Turning; or more of the manner of using them; because, by the whole proceeding Discourse, these Arguments are largely and sufficiently handled; especially considering I have given you the Figures of them in Plate 16. as aforesaid.
O [...]ly, their way of Whetting their Tools being different from the Whetting of other Turning Tools, I shall say somewhat to: For they Whet their Ho [...] upon a broad Flat Slate, holding the Hook almost perpendicular, that the Basil of its Edge [...] with the Flat of the Slate; with [...] the upper end of the Handle in their left [...] the heavier on it, and clutching [...] of the Blade near the Hook-end in the [...] hand, to guide it: And thus with Spittle, [...] Water, rub forwards and backwards on the Slate, till they have sharpned the Edge of the Hook. But if it be a round end Hook they whet▪ they chuse a Groove in the Slate fit to comply with the round edge of the Hook (for they have dif⯑ferent sized Grooves in the Slate for that purpose) and so in it rub forwards and backwards as afore⯑said.
§ XVIII. Of Turning Small Work of Brass, or other Mettle.
SMall Work in Mettal is Turned in an Iron Lathe called a Turn-bench. The Figure of it is de⯑scribed in Plate 16. at C. when they use it they screw it in the Chaps of a Vice, and having fitted their Work upon a small Iron Axis, with a Drill-Barrel fitted upon a square Shank at the end of [217] the Axis next the left hand, they with a Drill-bow and Drill-string carry it about, as was shewn in Smithing fol. 6. with this difference, that when a Hole is drill'd in a piece of Mettal, they hold the Drill-bow in their Right Hand; but when they Turn Small Work, they hold the Drill-bow in their Left Hand, and with their Right Hand use the Tool, which is commonly a Graver, or sometimes a Sculpter, fit to such Moldings as are to be made on the Mettal.
They begin to work first with the sharp point of a Graver, laying the Blade of it firm upon the Rest, and directing the point to the Work, and lay Circles upon it close to one another, till they have wrought it pretty true: Then with one of the broad Edges of the Graver they smoothen down what the Point left, and afterwards with Sculpters, Round or Flat, or great or small, they work their intended Moldings.
The Circumstances and Considerations in the choice of a Drill-bow and Drill-string for Turning, are the same with what you find in Smithing fol. 6, 7. for Drilling.
§ XIX. Of laying Moldings either upon Mettal, or Wood, without fitting the Work in a Lathe.
I Had, soon after the Fire of London, occasion to lay Moldings upon the Verges of several round and weighty flat pieces of Brass: And be⯑ing at that time, by reason of the said Fire, un⯑accommodated of a Lathe of my own, I inten⯑ded to put them out to be Turned: But then Turners were all full of Employment, which made them so unreasonable in their Prizes, that I was forc'd to contrive this following way to lay Mold⯑ings on their Verges.
I provided a strong Iron Bar for the Beam of a Sweep: (For the whole Tool marked in Plate 16, [218] is by Mathematical Instrument-makers called a Sweep.) To this Tool is filed a Tooth of Steel with such Roundings and Hollows in the bottom of it, as I intended to have Hollows and Round⯑ings upon my Work: For an Hollow on the Tooth, makes a Round upon the Work; and a Round upon the Tooth, makes an Hollow on the Work; even as they do in the Molding-plains Joyners use. Then I placed the Center-point of the Sweep in a Center-hole made in a square Stud of Mettal, and fixed in the Center of the Plain of the Work; and removed the Socket that rides on the Beam of the Sweep, till the Tooth stood just upon its intended place on the Verge of the Work, and there screw'd the Socket fast to the Beam.
To work it out, I employ'd a Labourer, di⯑recting him in his Left Hand to hold the Head of the Center-pin, and with his Right Hand to draw about the Beam and Tooth, which (accor⯑ding to the strength) he us'd, cut and tore a⯑way great Flakes of the Mettal, till it receiv'd the whole and perfect Form the Tooth would make; which was as compleat a Molding as any Skillful Turner could have laid upon it.
Having such good Success upon Brass, I im⯑prov'd the invention so, as to make it serve for Wood also. And make a Plain-Stock with my intended Molding on the Sole of it, and fitted an Iron to that Stock with the same Molding the Sole had.
Through the sides of this Stock I fitted an Iron Beam, to do the Office of the Beam I used for the Sweep, viz. to keep the Plain always at what po⯑sition I listed from the Center (for thus the Iron in the Plain wrought about the Center, even as the Tooth in the Sweep (before rehearsed) and to that purpose I made a round Hole of about [219] half an Inch Diameter near the end of the Iron: Then in the Center of the Work I fixed a round Iron Pin, exactly to fit the said round Hole, put⯑ting the round Hole over the Pin, and fitting the Iron into the Stock commodious to work with. I used this Plain with both Hands, even as Joyners do other Plains: For the Iron Pin in the Hole of the Beam kept it to its due distance from the Center; so that neither hand was ingaged to guide it.
But note, The Stock of this Plain was not straight (as the Stocks of other Plains are) but by Hand cut Circular pretty near the size of the Diameter of the intended Molding: And yet was made to slide upon the Beam, farther from or [...]earer to the Center, as different Diameters of Verges might require.
§ XX. To Turn several Globes or Balls of Ivory within one another, with a Solid Ball in the middle.
YOu must first Turn your Ivory Ball or Globe truly round, of your intended Diameter: Then describe a Circle exactly through the mid⯑dle, or Equinoctial of the Globe: Divide that Circle into four equal parts, and pitch one point of a pair of Compasses in one of those Divisi⯑ons, and extend the other point to either of the [...]ext Divisions, and describe with it a Circle r [...]und about the Globe. Then remove the stand⯑ [...]ng point of the Compasses to either of the next Divisions in the Equinoctial, and in like manner describe another Circle round about the Globe.
But Note, That the moving point of your Compasses must be somewhat bended inwards; for else its point will not describe a Circle on the greatest Extuberances of the Globe, but will slide off it.
[220]Thus shall the Ball or Globe be divided into eight Spherical Quadrants: Describe as great a Circle as you can in each of these Quadrants, and each two Centers of every two opposite Circles shall have an imaginary Axix pass between them: And if the Globe be successively pitcht upon all the rest of the Centers, so as the imagined Axis pas⯑sing between it and its opposite Center, lye in a straight line with the Pike and the Center of the Coller it is Turned in, the working out of all the Hollows on the Ball will be but common Turners Work, as you will find hereafter. This is in brief the Theory: But to the Practice.
You must use an Hollow-Mandrel, made fit stifly to receive the convexity of the Globe in its concavity, so as it may stick firmly in the Man⯑drel, in its position: And you must take care that in pitching the Globe into the Mandrel, that the imaginary Axis of the Globe (which is the Line passing between the two Centers of the two op⯑posite Circles as aforesaid) lye in a straight Li [...]e with the Axis of the Mandrel; which you may know by examining whether the Circle described with your Compasses (as aforesaid) on the Center (aforesaid) wabble not in a whole Revolution of the Globe, from the point of a Tool applied sted⯑dy to it.
Having thus pitcht the Globe true, and fixt it fast into the Mandrel, you must begin to work with the Triangular Grooving Point (described in Tur⯑ning § 5. and Plate 15.) placing the point of it pretty near the Center of the Circle, and work into the Ball with the Grooving Point, and so by degrees make a Hollow in the Ball so deep, and so wide, as you think convenient, I mean so deep from the Superficies of the Globe towards the Cen⯑ter of the Globe, and so wide from the Center of the Circle described on the Superficies of the [221] Globe towards that Circle, as it may have a con⯑venient Substance between this Hole, and the next intended to be Turned.
Thus must every one of the eight Circles de⯑scribed on the Globe, be successively by the same Rule, and after the same manner be pitcht out⯑wards, and fixt into the Mandrel, and then Hol⯑lowed out as the first was. Where Note, That every Hollow is to be Turned to the same depth and width exactly as the first was: Which to do, you must use a Gage made of a thin Plate of Iron or Brass, as is described in Plate 17. Fig. D. whose two sides from a the Bottom of the Gage, to b the Shoulder are the depth of the Hollow from the Superficies of the Globe towards the Center: bb. is the width of the Hollow at the Superficies of the Globe; and aa is the bottom width of the Hollow; and the concave Arch between aa is an Arch that the Convexity of the little solid Ball to be Turned within all the Spheres must comply with. So that when each Hollow is Turned, the Gage must be put into it to try how the sides of the Hollow complies with the sides of the Gage, and also how the Arch in the bottom of the Gage, complies with the surface of the Solid Ball in the middle.
Having thus Turned all the Hallows in the Globe, you must provide several thin and narrow Arching Grooving Tools, whose convex and concave Arches comply both with the Convexity and Concavity of each Globe, or Sphere, to be Turned within the outermost: So that begining at the bottom of the Hollow, you Turn just half way of the Solid Ball loose from the Sphere it is contained in, viz. as far as the Equinoctial of the Globe; and in thus Turning it, you must take great care, that the Solid Ball on its Convexity and the Concavi⯑ty of the Sphere it is contained in, be both at the [...]ame time Turned exactly Spherical.
[222]Thus one half of the Solid Ball being Turned loose, you may in like manner Turn the next Sphere it is included in half loose also: And so successively as many Spheres as you list.
Having thus Turned one half of all the Spheres loose, you must take the whole Globe out of the Hollow-Mandrel, and pitcht and fix the Globe a⯑gain into the Mandrel, so as the imagined Axis of the H [...]llow opposite to the last loosned Hollow lye in a straight line (as before was taught) with the Pike and Center of the Coller the Man⯑drel runs in, and then Turn the other half of the Solid Ball and Spheres also loose, as the first hal [...] was Turned.
§ XXI. To Turn a Globe with several loose Spheres in it, and a Solid Cube, or Dy, in the middle of it.
THis is Turned after the same manner the f [...]r⯑mer Ball was Turned; only instead of di [...]ding the Equinoctial of that Globe into four equal parts, the Equinoctial of this must be divided but into three equal parts, and their Semi-Circle draw through the divisions into either Pole of the Globe ▪ So shall the Globe be divided into six equal parts▪ or Segments; in each of which parts must be de⯑scribed a Circle, as was described before in the Globes of eight equal parts; and in these six C [...]r⯑cles must be made six Hollows, as before there was eight: But instead of working the Bottom of each hollow Spherical, now the Bottom must be wrought Flat: So shall the Cube when these six Hollows are thus made, be formed: And the Hol⯑lows being exactly of the same depth, and flat in the Bottom, the Cube or Dy will loosen, and each of the six Flats in the Bottom will become the six sides or Faces of the Cube.
[223]The manner of loosning all the other inward Spheres, is as the Former: Only, that was loos⯑ned with twice pitching the Ball in the Mandrel, because the Centers of the Hollows lay opposite to one another; but to loosen this Ball will re⯑quire three Pitchings into the Mandrel; because the Centers lye not opposite to one another.
§ XXII. To Turn a Cube, or Dy, in an Hol⯑low Globe, that shall have but one Hole on the outside to work at.
THe Outside of this Globe must be Turned Round, viz. Spherical, as the former, and fixed in an Hollow Socket (as before hath been taught.) Then must an Hole be Turned in the Globe so deep and so wide as you please, as in the former Globes, and the Bottom of that Hole Turned flat, for one side, or Face of the Cube, or Dy: Then with a Semi-circular Tool loosen the whole Core, or middle of the Ball, and pitch the Core with the point opposite to the Center of the already flatted face of the Dy, outwards against the Hole in the Globe, and so fasten it in this position, by powring in some melted hard Wax, or other Cement; and then with a flat Tool Turn the foreside, (viz. the side opposite to the first side) flat also: Which done, loosen it out of the Wax, and successive⯑ly pitch the other sides to be Turned flat care⯑fully against the Hole, so as all the sides have right Angles to each other, and fastning them with Wax, or Cement (as before) Turn them by the same Rule flat also.
[224]Now to make this Thing more admirable to the ignorant Spectator, you may make the Dy as big as you can, and the Hole you Turn it at as little as you can; that it may the more puz⯑zle the Wit of the Enquirer to find how so great a Dy should have Entrance at a small Hole, unless the hollow Ball were turned in two Halves, &c.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
Applied to the ART of Bricklayers Work.
[237]Definition.
BRicklayers-Work is an Art Manual, which Joins several Bodies so together, that they adhere like one entire Body.
Whether the White Mason, which is the Hewer of Stone, or the Red Mason, which is the Hewer of Brick, be the most Ancient, I know not: but in Holy Writ, we read of making of Bricks, before we read of Digging or Hewing of Stones; therefore we may suppose the Red Mason (or Bricklayer) to be the most Ancient.
The method that I shall use in Treating of this Art shall be this.
First, I will shew what Materials they use, and their Composition.
Secondly, I will treat of their Tools, and de⯑scribe their Names and Uses.
Thirdly, I will declare their Method of Work⯑ing, both in Bricks, Tiles, &c.
And first of Materials.
[238]WHich are comprised under six Heads, viz. 1. Bricks, 2. Tiles, 3. Morter, 4. Laths, 5. Nailes, 6. Tile-pins.
Of Bricks.
THey are made of Earth, of which the white⯑ish Chalky sort of Earth, and the Redish are the best.
At Lunenburg in Saxony, they make them of a fat Earth full of Allom. Also there are good Bricks made at Pitane in Asia, of a Pumice sort of Earth, which being dryed, will swim in Wa⯑ter and not Sink.
Likewise the Antients made them of Earth which was Sandy.
But here in England they are made for the most part of a yellowish coloured fat Earth some⯑what Redish.
And they are made of several sorts and sizes.
IN Holland they make small ones, being about six Inches long, three Inches broad, and one Inch in thickness.
Which sort of Bricks, is commonly used here in England, to pave Yards or Stables withal; and they make a good Pavement, and are very Du⯑rable, and being laid edge-ways looks handsomly, especially if laid Herring-bone fashion.
They are also used in Soap-boilers Fats, and in ma⯑king of Cisterns.
THe common Bricks that are made here in Eng⯑land, are nine Inches in length, four Inches and ¼ in Breadth, and two and an half in thick⯑ness; and sometimes three Inches thick.
Most Counties in England afford Earth for the making of Bricks.
[239]BUt the best Earth that we have in England for making of Bricks, is in the County of Kent, from whence we have most of the Bricks which are Rubbed and Hewed for the Ornaments of the chief Fronts in the City of London: The Ornamental part of which Fronts, are done with the reddest Bricks they can pick from among them; and the Rough or Plain Work, is done with the Grey Kentish Bricks; also those Gray Kentish Bricks are used in making of Cisterns to hold Water, and Horse-Ponds, and also Fats for Soap-Boilers; and I am of the Opinion, that no time will impair or decay those Grey Kentish Bricks: But, as Pliny says, (speaking of Bricks,) that they will last to Eternity.
There are also in most Counties of England, Bricks made for the Paving of Floors of Rooms, Cellers, Dary-houses, &c. which are made of a stronger sort of Earth, than the common Bricks for Building, the Earth being a kind of Clay, and in some Countries are called Clay Bricks, which are dearer than the Ordinary Bricks by about six Shillings in a Thousand.
Likewise in several Counties, but chiefly in Surrey, are made Paving Tiles of three several Magnitudes; the largest sort being twelve Inches long, and twelve broad, and one Inch and an half in Thickness.
The second sort are ten Inches long, and ten Inches broad, and one Inch and a quarter thick.
The third sort are eight Inches long, eight broad, and one Inch thick.
Either of which sorts being Polished or rubbed with sharp Sand on the Surface, and the joints made exactly square, and the sides equal, by [240] hewing them with a Brick Ax, and rubbing them on a rubbing Stone with sharp Sand, ma [...]es an excellent Pavement and pleasing to the Eye, especially when laid Arris ways.
Having thus described the several sorts of Bricks, and also paving Tiles, we come in the next place to treat of Tiles, made and used in the Covering of Roofs of Houses, both Publick and Particular, of which are four sorts or kinds.
The first sort are called Plains Tiles, being made of a strong sort of Earth like Clay; and are, or should be ten Inches and an half in length, in breadth six Inches and a Quarter, and in thick⯑ness three quarters of an Inch.
The second sort are Gutter or Hip Tiles, which are used sometimes for Vallies and Hips of Rooffs, altho' here at London, the Vallies are commonly tiled with Plain Tiles, and the Hips with Ridge, or (as some call them) Roof Toiles: These Gut⯑ter Tiles are in length ten Inches and an half, with convenient breadth and thickness accordingly, and are made Circular or hollow, and wider at one end than at the other.
The third sort are Ridge or Roof Tiles, being in length thirteen Inches, and made Circular breadthways like an half Cylinder, whose Dia⯑meter is about ten Inches, or more, and about half an Inch and half a quarter in thickness: These are laid upon the upper parr, or ridge of the Roof, and also on the Hips.
The fourth sort are Pan-Tiles, being about thirteen Inches long, with a Nob or Button to hang on the Laths, and are made hollow or cir⯑cular breadthways, being eight Inches in breadth, and about half an Inch in thickness, or some⯑what more. The best sort of these are brought from Holland into England, and are called Flem⯑mish Pan-Tiles, we having such Tiles made here [241] in England, but not so good: Which Flemmish Tiles are sometimes glazed, and are of a Lead, or Blewish colour, and being glazed they are ve⯑ry durable and handsom.
Having done with the Description of Tiles, for the Covering of Roofs, we come in the next place to treat of Morter, and first of Lime, being the chief Material of which the Mortar is made, for the Cementing or joining of Tiles, as well as Bricks together, we will Treat of it in the first place.
Of Lime.
THere are two sorts, one made of Stone, which is the strongest, and the other of Chalk, both sorts being burnt in a Kilne.
The Lime that is made of soft Stone or Chalk is useful for Plastering of Seelings and Walls within Doors, or on the insides of Houses; and that made of hard Stone, is fit for Structures or Buildings, and Plastering without Doors, or on the out side of Buildings that lies in the Wea⯑ther; and that which is made of greasy clam⯑my Stone, is stronger than that made of lean poor Stone; and that which is made of spongy Stone, is lighter than that made of firm and close stone; that is again more Commodious for Pla⯑stering, this for Building.
Also very good Lime may be made of Mill-stone, not course and Sandy, but fine and Greasy.
Likewise of all kinds of Flints (but they are hard to burn except in a Reverbratory Kilne) ex⯑cept those that are roled in the Water, because a great part of its increase goes away by a kind of Glass.
But the shells of Fish, as of Cockles, Oysters, [...] are good to burn for Lime.
[242]And the Fire in Lime burnt, Asswages not, but lies hid, so that it appears to be cold, but Wa⯑ter excites it again, whereby it Slacks and crum⯑bles into fine Powder.
Lime also is useful in divers things, for 'tis use⯑ful in Oyles and Wines, and good to Manure Land with; some season new Wine with it, mit⯑tigating the unpleasantness of the Wine there⯑with.
Moreover quick Lime being cast into an arch⯑ed Vault, and Water thrown upon it, consumes dead Bodies put therein.
Also Diers and Tanners, and likewise Physicians use it, but they choose the newest, to wit, that which is newly drawn out of the Kiln, and not slack'd with Water or Air.
It will burn so vehemently, that it makes crusts, and will fire Boards or Timber against which it lies; but being slackt for sometime, it burns no more, yet it warms and dries, and dis⯑solves Flesh; and being washed three or four times, it Bites or Eats not, but dries quickly.
Lime mixt with Sand is much used in Build⯑ings; and Vitruvius says, That you may put three parts of Sand that is digged (or pit Sand) and one part of Lime to make Morter; but if the Sand be taken out of a River, or out of the Sea ▪ then two parts thereof, and one of Lime; as al⯑so to River to Sea-Sand, if you put a third part of Powder of Tiles or Bricks, (to wit, Tile, o [...] Brick dust) it works the better.
But Vitruvius his Proportion of Sand seems too much, altho' he should mean the Lime before it is slacked; for one Bushel of Lime before it is slack'd, will be five Pecks after 'tis slack'd.
Here at London, where for the most part our Lime is made of Chalk, we put about thirty six Bushels of Pit-Sand, to twenty five Bushels o [...] [243] Quick-Lime, that is about one Bushel and half of Sand, to one Bushel of Lime.
And Lime mixt with Sand, and made into Morter, if it lye in an heap two or three Years before 'tis used, it will be the stronger and bet⯑ter, and the reason of so many insufficient Build⯑ings, is the using of the Morter, as soon as 'tis made, as Agricola saith.
Moreover there is other Morter used in making of Water-courses, Cisterns, Fish-ponds, &c. which is very hard and durable, as may be seen at Rome, at this day, which is called Maltha, from a kind of Bitumen Dug there; for as they build most firm Walls thereof naturally, so they use it in making of Cisterns to hold Water, and all manner of Water-works; and also in finish⯑ing or Plastering of Fronts to represent Stone.
And I find two kinds of Artifices used by the Antients, both of which is compounded of Lime and Hogs-grease, but to one is added the Juice of Figs, and to the other Liquid Pitch; and the Lumps of Lime are first wet or slack'd with Wine▪ then pounded or beat with Hogs-grease, a [...]d juice of Figs, or with the same Pitch; that which hath Pitch in it, is blacker and easily distingu⯑shed from the other by its Colour, and that which is Plastered with this Tarrace, is done o⯑ver with Linseed Oil.
Metalists use a kind of Tarrace in their Vessels for fining of Mettals, that the melted Mettle run not out; for as the Moderns restrain Water, and contain it, so the Antients, this liquid Mettal, and 'tis compounded or made of Quick-Lime and Ox Blood, the Lime being beat to Powder and sifted, and then mixt with the Blood and bea [...] with a Beater.
But their Cement differs from both the Malth [...]s in Composition and use, for 'tis made of Dust [244] or Powder of Marble, and Glew made of Bull or Ox Leather, and with this they glew pieces of Marble or Stones together.
In latter times, two kinds of Cement are in use, in both which they use the Powder of Marble, or other Stone, to one is added the Whites of Eggs, to the other is added Pitch; to these some add other things, as the Gravers of Gems, they make it of Tile Dust and Pitch.
Another Material which Bricklayers use are Laths, which are made of heart of Oak, for out side Work, as Tiling and Plastering; and of Fir for inside Plastering and Pantile Lathing; their usual lengths being 5 Foot, and 4 Foot, and sometimes longer or shorter; their Breadth some⯑times 2 Inches, and one Inch and an half, the thickness about ¼ of an Inch or thicker: But for Pantiling, the Laths, are about ten Foot long, one Inch and half Broad, and half an Inch or more thick.
Another Material is Nails, of which they use three sorts, one is called, Reparation or Lath Nails, which are used for plain Tile Lathing, and outside and inside Lathing for Plastring; a⯑nother sort are four Penny, and six Penny Nails, used for Pantile Lathing; and a third sort are great Nails for Scaffolding.
Moreover they use Tile-Pins, which are some⯑times made of Oak, and sometimes of Fir, which they drive into holes that are made in the Plain Tiles to hang them upon their Lathing.
They also put Ox or Cow Hair into the Mortar which they use for Plastering, being called Lime and Hair, which Hair keeps the Mortar from Cracking or Chaping, and makes it hold or bind together.
And whereas they make use of the sharpest Sand they can get (that being best) for Morter ▪ [245] to lay Bricks and Tiles in; so they chose a fat Loamy or Greasy Sand for inside Plasterning, by reason it sticks together, and is not so subject to fall assunder when they lay it on Se [...]lings or Walls.
Having given you an account of the several Materials that are used in Bricklayers Work, we shall in the next place Treat of their Tools and their uses, which are as follows.
Tools used in Brick Work.
1. A Brick Trowel to take up the Morter with, and to spread it on the Bricks, with which also they cut the Bricks to such lengths as they have occasion, and also stop the joints.
2. A Brick Ax ▪ with which they cut Bricks to what shape they please, as some for Arches both streight and Circular, others for the mouldings of Architecture, as Archytrave Friez and Cor⯑nice.
3. A Saw made of Tinn, to saw the Bricks which they cut.
4. A Rub-stone, which is round, and is about fourteen Inches Diameter, and sometimes more or less at pleasure, on which they rub the Bricks which they cut into several shapes, and also o⯑thers which they cut not, being call'd Rubbed Returns, and Rubbed Headers and Stretchers.
5. A Square, to try the bed of the Brick, (viz. that side which lies in the Morter) with the su⯑perficies or face of the Brick, to make the Brick square, or at Rect-angles one side with the other, which is done by rubing it on the Rub-stone till it exactly answers, or fits to the Square.
6. A Bevel, by which they cut the undersides of the Bricks, of Arches streight or circular, to such oblique Angles as the Arches require, and also for other Uses.
[246]7. A small Trannel of Iron, or a large Nail ground'd to a sharp point, with which they mark the Brick, either from a Square or Bevel▪ or a Mould made of thin Wainscot, or Past⯑board to direct them in the cutting thereof.
8. Some use a Float Stone, with which they rub the moulding of the Brick, after they have cut it with the Ax, pretty near to the Pattern de⯑scribed on the Brick, by the Trannel from the Wainscot, or Pastboard Mould, that so they may make the Brick exactly to answer to the Pattern or Mould. Others use no Stone at all, but cut the Brick exactly to the Pattern with their Brick-Ax, leaving the Ax stroaks to be seen on the Brick, which, if they be streight and pa⯑rallel one to another, look very prettily, and is the truest way of Working; but then they must take care, to Ax the Brick off, with an Ax that is exactly streight on the edge, that the mould⯑ing in the Brick be neither round nor hollow, from side to side of a Header, or from end to end of a Stretcher.
9. A Little Ruler, about 12 Inches in length, and 1 Inch and ½ broad, which they lay on the Brick to draw streight Lines by, with the Tran⯑nel or Nail.
10. A Banker, to cut the Bricks upon, which is a piece of Timber about six foot long, or more▪ according to the number of those who are to work at it, and 9 or 10 Inches square, which must be laid on two Piers of Brick, or fixt on Bearers of Timber about three foot high from the Floor, on which they stand to work.
11. They work up a Pier of Brick-work, a⯑bout the same height to lay their Rubbing-Store upon, which must be laid in Morter that it may lye fast
[247]12. A Grinding-stone, to sharpen their Axes, Hammers, Trowels, &c. upon.
13. A Pair of Line Pins of Iron, with a length of Line on them about sixty feet in length, to lay each Row, or Course of Bricks, level on the Bed, and streight on the Surface by, a Line sel⯑dom holding to strein, or draw streight in length, above 50 or 60 feet.
14. A Plumb Rule about 4 foot long, with a Line and Plu [...]met of Lead, to carry their Work upright, or perpendicular withal.
15. A Level, about 10 or 12 foot long, to set out their Foundations level, or parallel to the Horizon, and also to try whether the Walls of the Building, or Jambs of Chimneys, be carried level, as they raise the Work, that so they may bring up all their Brick-work to an exact hori⯑zontal height, at the laying on of ever floor of Carpentry.
16. A Large Square, to set their Walls at rect⯑angles, which may also be done without a Square ▪ by setting 6 foot from the angle one way, and 8 foot the other way, then if the Diagonal line, or Hypotenuse, be exactly 10 feet, the angle is a rectangle: If not, you must set the Wall that is to be at rectangles to the other, either this or that way, till the two measures of 6 and 8 feet an⯑swer exactly to 10 feet.
17. A Ten Foot and a Five Foot Rod, as also a Two Foot Rule, to take and lay down Lengths, and Breadths, and Heights.
18. A Jointing Rule, about 10 foot long, and a⯑bout 4 Inches broad, whereby to run the long Joints of the Brick-work.
19. A Jointer of Iron, with which, and the foresaid Rule, they joint the long Joints, and also the Cross Joints, these being done with the Jointer without the Rule.
[248]20. Compasses, to describe the several Mould⯑ings on Wainscot or Pastboard.
21. A Hammer, to cut Holes in Brick-work, and drive Nails for Scarfolding.
22. A Rammer, to Ram the Foundations.
23. A Crow of Iron, to dig through a Wall, and also a Pick-Ax.
The Manner and Shapes of the aforesaid Tools, you may see in Plate 1. and the Name of each Tool in the Page next the Plate wherein they are delineated.
The Names and Uses of Tools relating to Tyling.
1. A Lathing Hammer, to nail on the Laths withal, with two Gauge Stroaks (for Lathing for Tyling) cut upon the handle of it, one at 7 Inches from the head, and the other at 7 Inches and an half; some indeed Lath at 8 Inches, but that is too wide, occasioning Rain⯑ings in.
2. A Lathing Staff of Iron, in the form of a Cross, to stay the cross Laths while they are nailed to the long Laths, and also to clinch the Nails.
3. A Tyling Trowel, to take up the Morter and lay it on the Tiles, it being longer and narrower than a Brick-Trowel, altho' for a shift many times they use a Brick-Trowel to Tyle withal, when they have not a Tyling-Trowel.
4. A Bosse, made of Wood, with an Iron Hook, to hang on the Laths, or on a Ladder, in which the Labourer puts the Morter which the Tyler uses.
5. A Striker, which is only a piece of Lath about 10 Inches long, with which they strike, or cut off the Morter at the britches of the Tiles.
6. A Broome, to sweep the Tyling after 'tis strooke.
Of the Names and Uses of Tools relating to Plastering.
[249]1. A Lathing Hammer being the same as before in Tyling, with which the Laths are nailed on with its head, and with its Edge they cut them to any length, and likewise cut off any part of a Qurter, or Joyst, that sticks further out than the rest.
2. A Laying Trowel, to lay the Lime and Hair withall upon the Laths, it being larger than a Brick Trowel, and fastned its handle in a different manner from the Brick Trowel.
3. A Hawke, made of Wood about the big⯑ness of a square Trencher, with a handle to hold it by, whereon the Lime and Hair being put, they take from it more or less as they please.
4. A Setting Trowel, being less than the Laying Trowel, with which they finish the Plastering when it is almost dry, either by Trowelling and brishing it over with fair Water, or else by lay⯑ing a thin Coat of fine stuff made of clean Lime, and mixt with Hair without any Sand, and set⯑ting it, that is to say, Trowelling and brishing it.
5. A small Pointing Trowel, to go into sharp Angles.
6. Brishes, of three sorts, viz. A Stock Brish, a Round Brish, and a Pencil. With these Brishes ▪ they wet old Walls before they mend them, and also brish over their new Plastering when they set, or finish it, and moreover white and size their Plastering with them. The Pencil, or Draw⯑ing Tool, is used in blacking the bottoms, or lower ports of Rooms, &c.
7. Floats, made of Wood, with handles to them, which they sometimes use to float Seel⯑ings or Walls with, when they are minded to make their Plastering very streight and even, [250] these Floats being some larger, and some lesser, than the Laying Trowels: Likewise they use Floats made to fit to Mouldings, for the finishing of several sorts of Mouldings with finishing Morter to represent Stone, such as Cornices, Facias, Ar⯑chytraves, &c.
The finishing Morter to represent Stone, should be made of the strongest Lime, and the sharpest Sand you can get, which Sand must be washed in a large Tub, very well, till no Scum or Filth arise in the Water, when you stir it about, which sometimes will require to have Water 5 or 6 times, when the Sand is somewhat foul; and it requires a greater Proportion of Sand than the ordinary Morter, because it must be extreamly beaten, which will break all the knots of Lime, and by that means it will require more Sand.
8. Streight Rules of several lengths, to lay Quines streight by, and also to try whether the Plastering be laid true and streight, by applying the Rules to their Work.
9. A Pale, to hold Water or Whitewash, or White and Size.
10. Some use a Budget or Pocket to hang by their sides, to put their Nails in when they Lath, and others Tuck and tye up their Aprons, and put the Nails therein.
Having given you a Description of the several Tools and uses, there are some things yet remain⯑ing, which tho' they cannot be properly called Tools, yet they are Utensils, without which they cannot well perform their Work.
And they are.
[251]1. LAdders, of several lengths, as Standard-Ladders, two Story, and one Story Lad⯑ders, &c.
2. Fir Poles, of several lengths for Standards and Ledgers for Scaffolding.
3. Putlogs, which are pieces of Timber, or short Poles, about 7 Foot long, which lies from the Leggers into their Brickwork, to bear the boards they stand on to Work, and to lay Bricks and Morter upon.
4. Fir Boards, about 10 Foot long, and any Breadth, but commonly about a Foot broad, be⯑cause for the most part, four of them in breadth, makes the breadth of the Scaffold: Which boards ought to be one Inch and or two Inches in thickness, altho' commonly they make use of some, which are not above one Inch thick, which are sometimes subject to break, especially when the Putlogs lye far asunder from one another.
5. Chords, which should be well Pitched to preserve them from the Weather, and rotting▪ with which they fasten the Ledgers to the Stan⯑dards, or upright Poles.
6. Sieves, of several sorts, some larger, others lesser, some finer, others courser, to sift the Lime and Sand withal, before they wet it into Morter or Lime and Hair.
7. A Loame-hook, Beater, Shovel, Pick-Ax, Basket and Hod, which commonly belong to Bricklayers, Labourers, and may be called the La⯑bourers Tools.
8. A Skreen made of Boards and Wyer, which performs the Office of a Sieve, and with which one Man will Skreen as much Lime, mixt with Sand or Rubish, as two Men can with a Sieve.
[252]9. Boards or Tubs, to put the Morter in.
And except my memory fails me, these are all, or the most usual Tools and Utensils, which they make use of.
Having now given you an account of their se⯑veral Materials, together with their necessary Tools and Utensils; we shall proceed in the next place to treat of the Method of working, which is various, some working after a better Method, and more concisely than others.
And first of Foundations.
'TIs usual, and also very convenient, for any person before he begins to Erect a Building, to have Designs or Draughts drawn upon Paper or Vellum, and also if it be a large Building, to have a Model of it made in Wainscot; in which Designs and Model, the Ground Plat or Ichnography of each Floor or Story, is deline⯑ated and represented: As also the fashion and form of each Front, together with the Windows, Doors, and Ornaments, if they intend any, to wit, Facias, Rustick Quines, Architraves, Friezes and Cornices, are to be shewn in the Draughts or Designs of the Uprights or Orthographyes.
If more Fronts than one be shewn Perspectively in one Draught, then 'tis called Scenography, which is not easily understood, except by those who understand the Rules of Perspective.
Therefore it will be more Intelligible to the several Workmen, to have a Draught of each Front in a Paper by it self, and also to have a Draught of the Ground-Plat or Ichnography of every story, in a Paper by it self; because many times the Conveniences, or Contrivances in one Story, differs from those in another, either in bigness of Chimneys, or division of the Rooms, some being larger in one Story than another, and [253] sometimes having more Chimnies in one Story than in another, &c.
All which things being well considered, and drawn on Papers, or a Model made thereof, be⯑fore the Building is begun, there will be no need of Alterations, or Tearing and pulling the Build⯑ing to pieces after it is begun; for besides the hindrance of the Procedure of the Work, it makes the Building lame and Deficient, nothing being so well done, when 'tis put up, and pulled down, and set up again, as if it were well done at first.
Besides it makes the Workmen uneasy, to see their Work, in which they have taken a great deal of pains, and used a great deal of Art, to be pull'd to pieces.
The drawing of Draughts is most commonly the work of a Surveyor, although there be many Master Workmen that will contrive a Building, and draw the Designs thereof, as well, and as curiously, as most Surveyors: Yea, some of them will do it better than some Surveyors; espe⯑cially th [...]se Workmen who understand the Theo⯑rick pa [...] of Building, as well as the Practick.
MECHANICK EXERCISES: OR, The Doctrine of Handy-Works.
[254]And now concerning the Foundations.
AFter the Cellars are dug, if there are to be any, or if none, after the Trenches are dug, in which the Walls are to stand; the Master-Bricklayer, or else his Foreman (which ought to be an ingenious Workman) must in the first place try all the Foundations, in several places, with an Iron Croe, and Rammer, or, indeed, with a Borer (such as Well-Diggers use, to try what Ground they have to produce Water) to see whether the Foundations are all sound, and fit to bear the Weight which is to be set upon them. If he find any part of the Foundations defective, he ought to dig it deeper till he comes to firm ground; or if it proves to be loose, or made Ground to a great depth, then he must take care to make it good and sufficient to carry its Weight by Art, which may be done several ways.
First, If the Foundation be not very lose, and insufficient, it may be made good, by ramming [255] in great Stones with a heavy Rammer, the Stones being placed close together, and about a foot wider on each side of the Trench than the width of the Wall is to be; because all Walls ought to have a Basis, or Footing, at least 4 Inches on a side broader than the thickness of the Wall; which Stones being well rammed, and the Basis being 8 Inches more in breadth than the thick⯑ness of the Wall, and this 8 Inches being set off, about one Inch, or one Inch and an half at a time on both sides (that so the middle of the Wall may stand on the middle of the Basis) may make the Foundation good, and able to bear its Burden.
But if the Foundation be somewhat worse than as aforesaid, then he must get good pieces of Oak, whose length must be the breadth of the Trench, or about two foot longer than the breadth of the Wall, which must be laid cross the Foun⯑dation about foot asunder, and being well ram⯑med down, lay long Planks upon them, which planking need not be the length of the cross pieces, but only 4 Inches of a side wider than the Basis, or footing of the Wall is to be, and pin'd or spiked down to the pieces of Oak on which they lye.
But if the Foundations be so bad that this will not do, then he must provide good Piles made of Heart of Oak, of such a length as will reach ground, whose Diameter must be about 1/12 part of their length, which must be drove or forced down with a Commander, or an Engin for that purpose, and then lay long Planks upon them, and spike or pin the Planks to them, and the closer together that these Piles are drove the bet⯑ter it will be.
[256]Moreover, if the Foundation be faulty but in here and there a place, and there be good Ground in the other parts of it, you may turn Arches o⯑ver those insufficient places, which will dis⯑charge and take off the weight from the loose places.
And when you make these Arches to shun the difficulty of the Earth, and to save the charge of Expence, they must be made of Bricks and Morter that are very good, and be well wrought, that they do neither settle nor give way.
You may observe for the greater strength of these Arches, or Discharges, to make them high⯑er than a Semicircle, or half round, if the Work will admit of it, and to make the same, of Por⯑tions of Arches: As in Plate 3. Fig. 4. you may see, they are described from an Equilateral Tri⯑angle; that is to say, supposing the breadth of the Arch between the Piers to be AB; with this width, and from the points A and B, make the two Portions of the Arches AC and BC; this rising so high, adds great strength to the Arches to resist, or carry the Weight which they are to bear.
The ancient Architect Leon Baptista Albert ad⯑vises, when the Earth on which we would make Pillars or Piers is of equal resistance, that is to say, not good, to turn Arches inversed, or up⯑side down, and says, by this means one Pillar shall bear no more weight than another, when the Earth that is underneath is not so strong, or that it bears more than another part; which he doth thus.
Having wrought up the Pillars, or Piers, as high as is necessary from the Foundation, make from these Piers inverse Arches, as ABC in Plate 3. Fig. 5. whose Joints tend to the Cen⯑ter D.
[figure]
[257]By this construction he pretends for Example, that if the Pier F hath a worse Foundation, or hath a greater Weight, that is to say, is more charged than the other Piers, this charge, or weight, will be stopped, or stayed by the Inverse Arches ABC, IHK, because the Earth which is under these Arches keeps the Piers in the same height, that is to say, that they shall not sink.
But he must also suppose that this Earth is as firm as that of the Foundation of the Piers, or at least it must be made so.
The Ingenious Surveyor Mr. Hook, made use of this Artifice, as I am informed, in building the Lord Montague's brave House in Bloomsbury, in the County of Middlesex, and where he was then Surveyor.
The Foundation being all made firm, and le⯑velled, the Master-Bricklayer, or his Foreman, must take care to see all the Foundations set tru⯑ly out, according to the design of the Ground-plat, or Cellar-floor, and that all his Walls be made of the same thickness as they are in the Design; which is very difficult to do, to wit, to take the true thickness of the Walls from a Design that is drawn to a small Scale, because the breadth of the Points of the Compasses will vary somewhat; therefore 'tis advisable for him that draws the Draught, to set the Dimensions in Figures to each Wall, Chimney, Window, &c. and then the Workman cannot so easily make a Mistake.
And because the well-working and bonding of Brick-walls conduces very much to their strength, I will here add some some necessary Rules to be observed in the laying of Bricks, to make the Walls and strong and durable.
[258] First. That the Morter be made of well burnt good Lime, and sharp Sand, and that it have a due proportion of Sand, that is to say, if it be very sharp, a Load of Sand, being about 36 Bu⯑shels, is sufficient for an Hundred of Lime, be⯑ing 25 Bushels, or an hundred Pecks, (for I imagine that the word Hundred of Lime is used, because it contains an Hundred Pecks, and that in Old Time they used to sell it by the Peck, but now by the Bushel) to wit, to one Bushel of Quick Lime, a Bushel and half of Sand.
But if the Sand be not very sharp, then you may put a greater quantity of Sand, for Mor⯑ter which hath its due proportion of Sand, is stronger than that which hath less Sand in it, altho' some think otherwise.
Secondly, When you slack the Lime, take care to wet it every where a little, but do not over⯑wet it, and cover with Sand every laying, or bed of Lime, being about a Bushel at a time as you slack it up, that so the Stream, or Spirit of the Lime, may be kept in, and not flee away, but mix it self with the Sand, which will make the Morter much stronger, than if you slack all your Lime first, and throw on your Sand alto⯑gether at last, as some use to do.
Thirdly, That you beat all your Morter with a Beater three or four times over before you use it, for thereby you break all the Knots of Lime that go through the Sieve, and incorporate the Sand and Lime well together, and the Air which the Beater forces into the Morter at every stroak, conduces very much to the strength thereof.
[259]If I might advise any one that is minded to build well, or use strong Morter for Repairs, I would have them beat the Morter well, and let it lie 2 or 3 Days, and then beat it well again when 'tis to be used.
Fourthly, If you lay bricks in hot dry Wea⯑ther, and be it some small piece of Work that you would have very strong, dip every Brick you lay, all over in a Pale of Water, which will make the Wall much stronger than if the Bricks were laid dry: The reason why I mention a small piece of Work is, because 'tis a great deal of trouble to wet them for much Work, or a whole Building, and besides it makes the Workmen's Fingers sore; to prevent which, they may throw Pales of Water on the Wall after the Bricks are lay'd, as was done at the building of Physicians College in Warwick-Lane, by order of the Surveyor, which was the afore⯑said Ingenious Mr. Hook, if I mistake not.
Fifthly, Cover all your Walls in the Sum⯑mer-time to keep them from drying too hastily, for the Morter doth not Cement so str [...]ngly to the Bricks when it dries hastily, as when slowly.
Sixthly, Be sure to cover them very well in the Winter-time, to preserve them from Rain, Snow and Frost, which last is a great Enemy to all kinds of Morter, especially to that which hath [...]aken wet just before the Frost.
Seventhly, In working up the Walls of a Buil⯑ding, do not work any Wall above 3 foot high before you work up the next adjoining Wall, that so you may join them together, and make [260] good Bond in the Work: For 'tis an ill Custom among some Bricklayers, to carry, or work up a whole Story of the Party-walls, before they work up the Fronts, or other Work adjoining, that should be bonded or worked up together with them, which occasions Cracks and Setlings in the Walls.
Eightly, Take care that you do not lay Joint on Joint, in the middle of the Walls as seldom as may be, but make bond there as well as on the outsides; for I have seen some, who in work⯑ing of a Brick and half Wall, have laid the Header on one side of the Wall, upright upon the Header on the other side of the Wall, and so all along through the whole course, which indeed necessarily follows from the inconsiderate setting up of the Quine at a Toothing; for 'tis common to Tooth in the stretching course two Inches with the Stretcher only, and the Header on the other side, to be set upright upon the Header on this side, which causes the Headers to lye Joint in Joint in the middle of the Wall, as in Plate 3. Fig. 1. you may see.
Whereas if the Header of one side of the Wall, toothed as much as the Stretcher on the other side, it would be a stronger Toothing, and the Joints of the Headers of one side, would be in the middle of the Headers of the course they lye upon of the other side, as in Plate 3. Fig. 2.
All that can be said for this ill Custom of working, is this, that the Header will not well hang two Inches over the Bricks underneath it; I grant it will not, but then it may be made, by having a piece of Fir, or any other Wood of the thickness of a Course of Bricks, and two [261] Inches broad, and lay it on the last Toothing Course to bear it; or a Bat, put upon the last Toothing, will bear it till the next Quine is set upon it, and then the Bat may be taken away.
Ninthly, The same Inconveniency happens at an upright Quine in a Brick and half Wall, where 'tis usual to lay a Closier next the Header on both sides of the Wall, and in so doing 'tis Joint in Joint all the length of the Wall, except by chance a three quartern Bat happen to be laid.
To prevent which Inconveniency, and to make the Wall much stronger, lay a Closure on one side, and none on the other; but lay a three quarter Bat at the Quine in the stretching course, and in the Heading course adjoin an Header next to the Header at the Quine, as you may see it done in Plate 3. Fig. 1. and 2.
Where A and B in both Figures or Diagrams, represents a Brick and half Wall, having an up⯑right Quine at A, and a Toothing at B, and the Prick Lines represents the Course of Bricks laid upon the other course; so in Fig. 1. the black Lines next you are an heading course, and the Prick-lines next you, shew a Stretching course; And on the further side from you, the black Lines shew a stretching course, and the Prick-Lines an Heading course.
In which Fig. 1. is shewn the usual way of bad Working, but in Fig. 2. is shewn the true way it should be wrought, to be made firm and strong.
Also in working a two Brick Wall, I would advise in the Stretching courses, wherein you lay stretching on both sides the Wall next the Line, so also to lay stretching in the middle of the Wall, and Closiers next to each stretching Course that lies next the Line, as in Fig. 3. of Plate 3. you may see.
[262]Where the Diagram or Fig. AB, signifies a two [...]rick Wall, A being an upright Quine, and B the Toothing, in which, the black lines repre⯑sent the stretching course, and the Prickt Lines the Heading course, that lies upon the stretching course: In a two Brick Wall if you lay a closier next the upright Quine on both sides of the Wall, it makes good Bond.
Tenthly, In Summer time use your Morter as soft as you can, but in the Winter time pretty stiff or hard.
Eleventhly, If you build in the City of Lon⯑don, you must make all your Walls of such thicknesses as the Act of Parliament for rebuild⯑ing of the said City enjoyns, but in other places you may use your Discretion.
And because the Act of Parliament may not be in every Builders hands, I will therefore Incert so much of it as relates to Brickl [...]yers Work, to wit, the Heights and number of Stories, and the Thickness of Walls of the four several sorts of Buildings, which is as follows.
And be it further Enacted, That the said Houses of the First and least sort of Building Fronting by Streets or Lanes, as aforesaid, shall be of two Stories high, besides Cellars and Gar⯑rats; That the Cellars thereof 6 Foot and an half high, if the Springs of Water hinder not; and the First Story be 9 Foot high from the Floor to the Seeling; and the second Story 9 Foot high from the Floor to the Seeling; that all Walls in Front and Reer as high as the first Story, be o [...] the full thickness of the length of two Bricks, and thence upwards to the Garrats of the thick⯑ness [263] of one Brick and an half; and that the thick⯑ness of the Garrat Walls on the back part, be left to the Discretion of the Builder, so that the same be not less than the length of one Brick; and also that the thickness of the party Walls between these Houses of the First and lesser sort of Building, be one Brick and ½ as high as the said Garrats, and that the thickness of the party Wall in the Garrat, be of the thickness of the length of one Brick at the least.
And be further Enacted, That the Houses of the second sort of Building fronting Streets and Lanes of Note, and the River of Thames, shall consist of three Stories high, besides Cellars and Garrats as aforesaid; that the Cellars thereof [...]e 6 Foot and ½ high, (if the Springs hinder not) that the first Story contain full 10 Foot in height from the Floor to the Seeling: The second full 10 Foot, the third 9 Foot; that all the said Walls in Front and Reer, as high as the first Story, be two Bricks and ½ thick, and from thence upwards to the Garrat Floor, of one Brink and ½ thick; and the thickness of the Garrat Walls on the back part be left to the dis⯑creation of the Builder, so that the same be not less than one Brick thick: And also that the thickness of the party-walls between every House of this second, and larger sort of Building, be two Bricks thick as high as the first Story, and thence upwards to the Garrats, of the thickness of one Brick and ½.
Also, that the Houses of the third sort of Buildings, fronting the high and principle Streets, shall consist of 4 Stories high, besides Cellars and Garrats as aforesaid: That the first Story contain full 10 foot in height from the Floor to the Seeling; the second 10 foot and ½; the third [264] 9 foot; the fourth 8 foot and ½: That all the said Walls in Front and Reer, as high as the first Story, be of two Bricks and ½ in thickness, and from thence upwards to the Garrat Floor, of the thickness of one Brick ½: That the thickness of the Garrat Walls on the back part be left [...] the discretion of the Builder, so as the same be not less than one Brick: And also that the Party-walls between every House, of this third and larger sort of Building, be two Bricks thick as high as the first Floor, and thence upwards to Garrat Floor, the 1 ½ Brick in thickness.
And, Be it further Enacted, That all Houses of the fourth sort of Building, being Mansion Houses, and of the greatest bigness, not fronting upon any of the Streets or Lanes as aforesaid; the number of Stories, and the Height thereof, shall be left to the discretion of the Builder, so as he exceeds not four Stories.
Also, the same Act enjoins, That no Timber be laid within 12 Inches of the foreside of the Chimny Jambs; and that all Joysts on the back of any Chimny be laid with a Trimmer, at six Inches distant from the back: Also, that no Timber be laid within the Tunnel of any Chim⯑ny, upon penalty to the Workman for every De⯑fault ten Shillings, and ten Shillings every week it continues unreform'd.
[figure]
In the next place you shall have the Ground Plat of a Building, and its Explanation.
IN Plate 4, you have the Draught of a Ground Plat of a Building, which is 25 Feet, both in the Front and Reer Front; and 40 Feet in the Flank or Depth: The Front and Reer Front Walls, are 2 Bricks and ½ in thickness; the Flank Walls are 2 Bricks in thickness, as you may prove by the Scale of Feet and Inches annext to the Design.
You may imagine this Design to be the Ground Floor, having no Cellar beneath it: And the height of the Story between the Floor and the Seeling to be 10 Foot; and because we do suppose this Building to have Houses adjoin⯑ing it on each side, therefore we have drawn the Stair-case with an open Nuel to give light to the Stairs; but if the House had stood by it self, without other Houses adjoyning, then we might have had light to the Stairs from the Flank Wall.
Explanation of the Design.
- F. The Front.
- R. Reer Front.
- B. Flank Walls.
- A. Piers of Brick.
- W. Windows of Timber.
- D. Door-cases of Timber.
- O. Chimneys.
- C. Jambs of Chimneys.
- [266]H. Open Nuel to give light to the Stairs.
- K. Clossets.
- L. A Brick and half Wall between the Clos⯑sets.
- a. Funnels or Tunnels of Chimneys.
- 1.2.3.4, &c. Steps of Stairs called Fliers.
- 8.9.10, &c. Steps of Stairs called Winders.
- e. Timber Partitions.
The Scale contains 32 Feet, with a Diagonal Line to shew the Inches in a Foot: For Exam⯑ple, if you would take of 8 Inches, take the Interval from 8 in the Horizontal Line to the Diagonal Line, and that is 8 Inches: From 3 in the Horizontal Line to the Diagonal Line, is 3 Inches, and so of the rest.
In the next Plate you have the Orthography, or upright of this Ground Plat, and this the Explanation thereof, with a Scale of Feet and Inches annext thereto,
Explanation of Plate 5.
- A. The Water-Table.
- B. First Fascia.
- C. Second Fascia.
- D. Three plain Courses of Bricks over the Arches.
- E. Cornice.
- F. Chimnies.
- G. Gable-end.
- H. Streight Arches.
- W. Shas Frames.
- S. Shas lights.
- K. Door-case.
- L. Window-Lighte over the Door.
[figure]
[figure]
[267]The Scale of Feet and Inches being the same, as in the Ground Plat of Plate 4. I need not say any thing concerning it, because I have there shewn the use of it.
And although I have in this Design, drawn the Fascias plain without any Mouldings, yet sometimes they are made with Mouldings, which shew very neat and handsome, I have therefore in Plate 6. given you a Design of a Brick Fascia, wrought with Mouldings, in which Design
- S. Is Scima reversa.
- O. Joints of Morter.
- P. Plain Courses.
- A. Astragal.
- B. Ovolo, or Boltel, reversed.
In the same Plate, you have the design of a Brick Cornice, and the Names of the Mouldings, are
- A. Scima recta, or Ogee.
- O. Joint of Morter.
- B. Scima reversa, or Scimatium.
- C. Corona, or Plancheer.
- D. Ovolo, or Boltel.
- E. Cavetto, or Casement.
In which Cornice, the Corona, or Planch [...]er, ought (according to the Rules of Architecture) to Sail over, or project more; but the length of a Brick being but about 8 Inches when its head is rubbed for hewing, it will not hang, if it sail over, more than is shewn in the Draught, which is about 3 Inches and an half. But if you would make it to project more, then you must Ce⯑ment pieces to the ends of your bricks for rail⯑ing, [268] or to make them longer: Of which Ce⯑ment there is two sorts, one is called cold Ce⯑ment, and the other is hot, the making and use whereof, we will shew towards the latter end.
To describe Mouldings on Wainscot, or Pastboard, for Patterns, to cut Bricks by.
There are two ways to describe the Hollows, and rounds of Moulding in Fascias, or Corni⯑ces; one from the oxi, or oxigonium, the other from the half round, or Semicircle, that makes the Moulding flatter, this more circular; I will shew both ways, and then you may make use of which you please.
First, We will describe a Cavetto, or Case⯑ment, both ways.
In Plate 7. the Fig. 1. is described from the oxi, in this manner, having allowed the proje⯑cture of the Moulding at the bottom, and the Fillet at top, draw the Line ab, then with the Compasses taking the interval ab, place one point of the Compasses in a, and with the other describe the Arch dd; then with one Foot in b, with the other describe the Arch cc, and where these two Arches intersect each other, there is the Center to describe the Cavetto; then fixing one Foot in the Center, extend the other to a or b, and describe the Arch agb.
[figure]
To describe the Scima Recta, or Ogee, both ways.
Fig. 3. is described by the Oxi in this man⯑ner; having allowed the Fillet at top af, draw the Line ab, and bisect it, that is, part it in the middle in e; then with your Compasses take the Interval eb, and fixing one point in e, with the other describe the Arch cc, then with the same Interval, or distance, fixing one point in b, with the other, describe the Arch dd, and where these two Arches Intersect, or cut each other, there is the Center to discribe the round, or lower part of the Ogee, to wit, ehb: Then fixing one point of the Compasses on the Inter⯑section by d, extend the other to b, or e, and describe the Arch ehb: Then to describe the Hollow, or upper part of the Ogee, take with your Compasses the Distance, or Interval ea, and fixing one point in e, with the other describe the Arch cc, then keeping the Compasses, at the same distance, fix one foot in a, and with the other describe the Arch dd, intersecting the other Arch in g: Then fixing one Foot in g, ex⯑tend the other to e or a, and describe the Arch eha, which compleats the Scima recta, or O⯑gee.
To describe the same Ogee by a Semicircle. Fig. 4.
[270]1. After you have allowed the Fillet af, draw the Line ab.
2. Bisect the Line in s.
3. Bisect eb and sa, as at cc.
4. On the Center c. with the Interval ca, de⯑scribe the Semicircle sda.
5. Middle it, as at d.
6. Fixing one point in d. extend the other to a or s, and describe the Arch ahs.
7. On the Center c, with the distance cb, de⯑scribe the Semicircle bds.
8. Middle it, as at d.
9. Fix one Foot in d, and extend the other to b or s.
10. Describe the Arch bhs, which compleats the Scima Recta, or Ogee; and after either of these ways, which you like best, you may de⯑scribe any other Moulding.
And because many times Bricklayers make Archytrave Jambs and Arches, about Windows and Door-cases in a Front, I will therefore de⯑lineat an Archytrave to be cut in the length of a Brick; which is most usual, although you may make your Archytrave larger, and cut it in the length of one Brick and an half.
[figure]
Here follows the Names of the several parts of the Archytrave.
- A. Fillet.
- B. Scima.
- C. Upper Fascia.
- D. Lower Fascia.
I did intend here to have added something about the Arching of Vaults, but intending, God willing, to treat largely of the Description of all manner of Arches, and making of Moulds, or Patterns, to cut them by, when I come to exercise in Masonry, which will succeed this: I shall therefore omit speaking of Vaults in this Exercise.
I shall now in the next place shew how to de⯑scribe any Ellipsis Arch in Brick; and make the Moulds, as also to describe streight Arches▪ and make the Moulds for the same.
To describe an Oval to any Length and Breadth given.
An Ellipsis Arch is an half Oval: Therefore in Plate 8. Fig. 1. let the length given be AB, and the Breadth CD.
Apply the two given Lines together, so that they may cut each other into two equal parts, and at right angles in the point E, then take half the line AB, between your Compasses, and setting one point of the Compasses in C, extend the other till it touch the line AB, in K and L, [272] which two points are called the Focasses, o [...] burning points, in which points drive two Nails, if you describe it on Boards, but upon Paper, as here two Pins will do; the Pins being stuck fast in the points K and L, stick also another Pin in the Point C, then take a Thread, and Encompass these 3 Pins in form of a Triangle, pulling the Thread tight, tye the two ends of the Thread together, by a knot at C, then ta⯑king out the Pin at C, take a Pencil of Black-Lead, holding it close to the inside of the Thread, and carrying the Pencil round upon the Paper, about the Pins, with the Thread al⯑ways streight, the Ellipsis or Oval ACBD, will be thereby described.
Another way to describe the same.
Here I shall only describe a Semi-Oval, being an Ellipsis Arch.
In Fig. 2. let the length given be AB, and the Semidiameter or height of the Arch CD; Divide AB into seven equal parts, then upon one seventh part from A as at E, raise a Perpen⯑dicular from the Line AB, (viz. EG.) also at one seventh part from B, as at F, raise another Perpendicular FH; then divide the Semidiame⯑ter given CD, into 15 equal Parts, and take Eleven of those Parts, and set upon the Perpen⯑dicular from E to G, and likewise from F to H; then taking the space between A and G, setting one point of the Compasses in A, describe the Arch G i, keeping the Compasses at the same distance, set one point in G, and describe ano⯑ther Arch, which will cut the former in the point by i; from which point, with the Radi⯑us [273] A i, describe the Hanse AG; this being done, take between your Compasses the space BH, and setting one point in B, describe the arch I i, then remove your Compasses to H, and intersect that Arch in the point by i, then setting your Compasses on the point i, with the same di⯑stance, describe a part of the Ellipsis BH, which is called the Hanse: The other part to be de⯑scribed from G to H, is called the Scheam, which to describe, continue or draw longer the Semi-diameter DC, and in that line find a Center, whereon setting one point of the Compasses, the other point may touch the three points GDH, as on the Center I; whereby describe the Scheam GDH, which was to be done.
These Ellipsis, or Semi-Oval Arches, being neatly wrought in Brick, shew very pleasant, and are sometimes made over Gate-ways, and also over Kitchin-Chimnies, instead of Mantle-trees.
We will suppose an Ellipsis Arch to be made over a Chimny, whose Diameter between the Jambs is eight feet, and the under side of the Arch at the Key to rise in height 18 Inches from the level of the place, whence you begin to spring the Arch; the height or depth of the Arch we will suppose to be made of the length of two Bricks, which when they are cut to the sweep of the Arch, will not contain above 14 Inches, and perhaps you must Cement pieces to many of the Courses in the Hanse to make them long enough to contain, or hold 14 Inches, espe⯑cially if you intend to make the Courses of the Hanse, and the Courses of the Scheam to seem alike in greatness, on the under side of the Arch; For if you make the Hanse to come to a true Sommering for the Scheam, by that time that [274] you have ended the Hanse, and are ready to set the first Courses of the Scheam: The Mould, and so likewise each Course in the Hanse, will be much less at the lower part, or under side of the Arch, than the Mould, or Courses of the Scheam, as you may perceive by the Hanse BK, in the 3d. Fig. which way of working these kind of Arches is stronger, than to make the Courses seem alike in bigness in Hanse and Scheam, although it be not so pleasing to the eye. In the 3d. Fig. I will shew how to make one half of the Arch this way, and in the o⯑ther half shew how to make the Courses in Hanse and Scheam of a bigness.
First, Describe the under side of the Arch, (viz. the Ellipsis ADB, whose Diameter AB is eight feet, and the height CD 18 Inches) upon some smooth Floor, or streight plaistered Wall, or such like; then continue (viz. draw longer) both the lines AB, CD, cutting each other at right Angles, then from A to E, also from B to F, likewise from D to G, set 14 Inches, the intended height of your Arch. Then describe another Ellipsis to that length and height, after this manner; lay a streight Ruler on the Centre by I, and on the joining of the Hanse, and the Scheam together, as at K, and draw the line KL, then set one point of your Com⯑passes in the centre of the Hanse at M, and open the other point of the Compasses to F, and de⯑scribe the upper Hanse FL, likewise setting one point of the Compasses in the centre by I, with the other extended to G, describe the Scheam GL, (although I speak here of Compasses, yet when you describe an Arch to its full big⯑ness, you must make use of centre Lines or [275] Rules; the last are best, because Lines are sub⯑ject to stretch) then taking between your Com⯑passes the thickness of a Brick, abating some small matter which will be rub'd off from both beds of the Brick; with the Compasses at this distance divide the upper Hanse from L to F into equal parts, and if they happen not to di⯑vide it into equal parts, then open them a small matter wider, or shut them a small mat⯑ter closer, till it doth divide it into equal parts, and look how many equal parts you divide the upper Hanse into, so many equal parts you must divide the lower Hanse from K to B into likewisewise (or you may divide the upper Hanse from the centre O, making a right An⯑gle from each sommering Line to the Ellipsis, as is shewn in describing the streight Arches fol⯑lowing; and from the centre O, and the Di⯑visions in the upper Hanse being thus divided, you may draw the streight Lines to the lower Hanse, and not divide it with the Compasses) through each of which divisions with a Rule, and Pencil, draw streight lines, then get a piece of thin Wainscot, and make it to fit between two of these Lines, allowing what thickness for Morter you intend, this will be the Sommering Mould for the Hanse; then divide the upper Scheam likewise, with the Compasses at the same distance into equal parts, and laying a Ruler on the centre I, from each Division in the Scheam GL, draw streight Lines to the lower Scheam DK, then make another Sommering Mould to fit between two of these Lines, aba⯑ting so much as you intend the thickness of your Joints of Morter to be, which if you set very close Morters, the breadth of the Line will be enough to allow; then laying the inner Edge of [276] a Bevil streight on the line KL, bring the Tongue to touch the under side of the first Course of the Scheam, then take up the Be⯑vil, and set that Bevil line upon the Sommering Mould of the Scheam; which Bevil line serves for each Course in the Scheam; but you must take the Bevil of each Course in the Hanse, and set them upon your Sommering Mould by themselves, and Number them with 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. because each Course varies.
Thus having made your Sommering Moulds, in the next place you must make the Moulds for the length of your Stretchers, and for the breadth of the Headers and the Closiers; a piece of Wainscot seven Inches long, and three Inches and an half broad will serve for the length of the Stretchers, and the breadth of the Headers, the Closiers will be 1 Inch and ¾. broad. So the Closier will be half the breadth of the Header, and the Header half the length of the Stretcher, which will look well.
It remains now to speak something to the other part of the Arch, to wit, AD, whose Courses both in Hanse and Scheam, run alike upon the Ellipsis Lines, and seem of one big⯑ness, although perhaps there may be some small matter of difference, by reason I have not di⯑vided the Courses to this Figure, from a right Angle, but every Course from the Angle, which it makes with the Ellipsis, which I chose rather to do, that so the Bevil of one Course, might not seem to run more upon the Ellipsis than the Bevil of another, and the difference of the thicknesses being so inconsiderate, is not discerned.
[277]Having described both the Ellipsis lines AD, EG, divide each of them into a like number of equal parts, always remembring to make each Division on the upper Ellipsis line, no grea⯑ter than the thickness of the Brick will contain, when it is wrought; then through each Divisi⯑on in both the Ellipses draw streight lines; con⯑tinuing them four or five Inches above the up⯑per Ellipsis Line, and as much below the low⯑er Ellipsis Line; then having provided some thin Sheets of fine Pastboard about 20 Inches square, cutting one edge streight, take one sheet and lay the streight edge even upon the line AE, so that it may cover both the Ellipsis lines, and being cut to advantage, it may cover eight courses (or nine of the streight Lines) having laid it thus upon the figure of the Arch, stick a Pin, or two, through it, to keep it in its place; then lay a Ruler upon the Past-board true to the 7, 8, or 9th. streight Line of the Arch, according as the Past-board is in big⯑ness to cover them, and take a sharp Pen-knife, laying the Ruler upon the Past-board true to the streight Line (whose ends being continued longer than the Arch is deep, as I directed be⯑fore, will be seen beyond the Past-board) and cut the Past-board true to the Line, then take another sheet, and join to it, and cut it as you did the first, so continue till you have co⯑vered the Arch from AE, just to the line DG, sticking Pins in each Sheet to keep them in the places where you lay them: Then de⯑scribe both the Ellipsis Lines upon the Past-board, from the same Centres and Radii that you described the Ellipsis's under the Past-board, and either divide the Ellipsis Lines with the Compasses on the Past-board, or else draw lines [278] upon the Past-board from or by the streight lines underneath them whose ends you see; but the surer way is to divide the Ellipsis's on the Past-board, and draw Lines through those Divisions, as you did beneath the Past-board; then set seven Inches, being the length of each Stretcher, from A towards E, and from D to⯑ward [...] G. and describe from the former Centres, the [...] oo through each other course on the Past- [...]oard, as you may see in the Fig. also set three Inches and an half, being the breadth [...] Header, from A towards E, and [...] from D towards G: Also set the [...]ame three Inches and an half from E towards A, and from G towards D, and describe these two Ellipsis lines from the same Centres thro' each Course, which the Ellipsis line of the Stretchers miss'd; likewise draw in the same Courses, two other Ellipsis lines, one Inch and [...] from each of those two Lines you drew last, which is the breadth of the Closiers; thus one Course of the Arch will be divided into two Stretchers, and the next to it into three Headers and two Closiers through the whole Arch; this being done, cut the Past-board according to the lines into several Courses, and each other Course into two Stretchers, and the Heading-courses into three Headers, and two Closiers, exactly according to the Sweep of the Black-lead lines, and mark each Course with Figures, marking the first Course of the Hanse with 1, the next with 2, the third with 3, and so continue till you have marked all the Courses to the Key, or middle, for every Course differs; you were best to mark the lower Closier in each course with a Cipher on the left hand of its own num⯑ber, that you may know it readily from the [279] upper Closier, and make no mistakes when you come to set them; also the middle Headers in each Course should be marked besides its own number; the thickness of the upper Header being easily discerned from the lower Header needs no marking besides its own number; the cross Joints, and likewise the under side and upper side of each Course must be [...] circu⯑lar, as the Past-boards which are your Moulds direct you.
If you will add a Keystone, and Chaptrels to the Arch, as in the Figure, let the breadth of the upper part of the Keystone be the height of the Arch, viz. 14 Inches, and Sommer, from the Centre at I, then make your Chap⯑trels the same thickness that your lower part of the Keystone is, and let the Keystone break without the Arch, so much as you project or Sale over the Jaums with the Chaptrels.
Other kind of Circular Arches, as half Rounds and Scheams, being described from one Centre, are so plain and easy, that I need say nothing concerning them▪ But since Streight Arches are much used, and many Workmen know not the true way of describing them, I shall write some⯑thing briefly concerning them. Streight Arches are used generally over Windows and Doors, according to the breadth of the Piers between the Windows, so ought the Skew-back or Som⯑mering of the Arch to be; for if the Piers be of a good breadth, as three or four Bricks in length, then the Streight Arch may be described (as its vulgarly said) from the Oxi, which be⯑ing but part of a Word, is taken from the word Oxigonium, signifying an Equilateral Triangle, [280] with three sharp Angles; but if the Piers are small, as sometimes they are but the length of two Bricks, and sometimes but one Brick and an half, then the breadth of the Window, or more, may be set down upon the middle Line for the Centre, which will give a less Skew-back, or Sommering, than the centre from an Oxi. I will shew how to describe them both ways, and first from the Oxi.
Suppose a Streight Arch, one Brick and an half in height, to be made over a Window, 4 feet in width. [See Fig. 4.] wherein one half of the Arch is described from the Oxi, and the other half from the width of the Window, let the width of the Window be AB, taking the width between the Compasses, from A and B as two Centres, describe the two Arches, inter⯑secting each other at P, (though I speak here of Compasses, yet when you describe the Arch to its full bigness, you must use a Ruler, or a Line, scarce any Compasses being to be got large enough.) Then draw another Line above the line AB, as the line CD, being parallel to it, at such a height as you intend your Arch to be, as in this Fig. at 12 Inches; but most commonly these sort of Arches are but 11 Inches in the height, or thereabouts, which answers to four Courses of Bricks, but you may make them more or less in height accor⯑ding as occasion requires; then laying a Ruler on the centre P, and on the end of the line A, draw the line AC, which is vulgarly called the Skew-back for the Arch.
The next thing to be done, is to divide those two lines AB and CD into so many Courses [281] as the Arch will contain; the thickness of a Brick being one of them, which some do by dividing the upper line into so many equal parts, and from those parts, and from the Centre P, draw the Sommering Lines or Courses; others divide both the upper and lower line into so ma⯑ny equal parts, and make no use of a Centre, but draw the Courses by a Ruler, being laid from the Divisions on the upper line, to the Divisions on the lower line, both which ways are false and erroneous; [but this by way of caution.]
Having drawn the Skew-back AC, take be⯑tween your Compasses the thickness that a Brick will contain, which I suppose to be two Inches when it is rub'd, and setting one point of the Compasses on the line CD. So that when you turn the other Point about, it may just touch the line AC in one place, and there make a Prick in the line CD, but do not draw the Sommering lines until you have gone over half the Arch, to see how you come to the Key, or middle; and if you happen to come just to the middle line, or want an Inch of it, then you may draw the lines, but if not, then you must open, or shut the Compasses a little till you do.
Then keeping one end of the Rule close to the Centre at P. (the surest way is to strike a small Nail in the Centre P. and keep the Rule close to the Nail) lay the other end of the Rule close to the Prick that you made on the line CD, keeping the Compasses at the same width (viz. two Inches) set one point of the Compasses on the line CD, as before, so that [282] the other Point being turned about, may just pass by the Rule; and as it were touch it in one place; (you must remove the point of the Compasses upon the line CD, farther or near⯑er to the Rule, until it just touch the Rule in one place,) and so continue with the Rule and Compasses, until you come to the middle line, and if it happen, that your last space want an Inch of the middle, then the middle of the Key-course will be the middle of the Arch, and the number of the Courses in the whole Arch will be odd, but if the last space happen to fall just upon the middle line EF, as it doth in the Fig. then the Joint is the middle of the Arch, (but if it should happen neither to come even to the line, nor want an Inch of it, then you must open or shut the Compasses a small matter, and begin again till it doth come right) and the number of the Courses in the whole Arch, is an even Number.
Note, When the number of all the Courses in the Arch, is an even Number, then you must begin the two sides contrary, viz. A Header to be the lower Brick of the first Course on one side (or half) of the Arch, and a Stretcher the lower Brick of the first Course on the other side (or half) of the Arch: And contrariwise, if it happen that the Number of the Courses be an odd Number, as 25 or 27, or such like, then the first Courses of each half of the Arch, must be alike, that is, either both Headers, or both Stretchers, at the bottom.
Thus having described the Arch, the next thing to be done, is to make the Sommering Mould, which to do, get a piece of thin Wain⯑scot [283] (being streight on one edge, and having one side plained smooth, to set the Bevil strokes upon) about 14 Inches long, and any breadth above two Inches, then laying your Ruler, one end at the Centre P, and the other end even in the Skew-back line, clap the streight edge of the Wainscot close to the Rule, so that the low⯑er end of the Wainscot may lye a little below the line AB, then take away the Centre Rule, but stir not the Wainscot; and laying a Ruler upon the Wainscot just over the line CD, strike a line upon the Wainscot, then set one Point of the Compasses being at the width of a Course (viz. two Inches) upon that line, so that the other Point being turned about, may just touch the streight edge of the Wainscot; (as you did before in dividing the Courses) then make a Prick on the line on the Wainscot, and laying your Centre Rule upon it, and on the Cen⯑tre P, draw a line upon the Wainscot by the Ruler, with a Pencil, or the Point of a Com⯑pass, and cut the Wainscot to that line, and make it streight by shooting it with a Plain, then your Wainscot will fit exactly between any two lines of the Arch; you may let it want the thickness of one of the lines, or some small matter more, which is enough for the thickness of a Mortar; the length of your Stretcher in this Arch, may be 8 Inches and ¼, and the Header 3 Inches and ¾, but if your Arch be but 11 Inches in height, then make your Stretcher 7 Inches and ½ long, and the Header 3 Inches ½; one piece of Wainscot will serve both for the length of the Stretcher, and the length of the Header, making it like a long square or Oblong, whose sides are 8 Inches ¼, and 3 Inches and ¾. Then take a Bevil, and lay⯑ing [284] the inner edge of it streight with the line AB, and the Angle of the Bevil just over the Angle at A, take off the Angle that the Skew-back line AC makes with the line AB, and set it upon the smoothed side of your Sommering Mould, for the Bevil stroke of your first Course; then drawing your Bevil towards E, streight in the line, until the Angle of the Bevil be just over the Angle, that the second Sommering line makes with the line AB; when it is so, draw the Tongue of the Bevil to lye even upon the second Sommering line; (in brief, cause the Bevil to lye exactly on the line AB, and on the second Sommering line) then take up your Bevil and lay it on the Mould; and strike that Bevil line on the Mould, with the Point of the Compasses, about half a quarter of an Inch distant from the first, and that is the Bevil of the underside of the second Course; proceed thus until you come to the middle line EF, but after you have set three Bevil lines upon your Sommering Mould, leave about ¼ of an Inch between the third and the fourth, and so likewise between the 6th and 7th, and the 9th, and 10th, which will be a great help to you, in knowing the Number of each line on the Mould.
The Moulds for the other half of the Arch, namely EB, are made after the same manner, but but the Arch is described from a Centre beneath P, as Q which causeth a less Skew-back (viz. B. D.)
The diminishing of the Sommering Mould to any Skew-back may be found by the Rule of Three, by dividing a foot into 10 equal parts, [285] and each of these into 10 parts, so that the whole foot may contain 100 parts, then pro⯑ceed thus. The upper line CF, will be 309, that is three Feet and almost one Inch, and the lower line AE will be 252, that is two Feet and an half an 2/100, and the upper part of the Sommering Mould will be 17 almost, that is, two Inches of such whereof there are 12 in a foot line measure; having these three Numbers (viz. 309, 252, 17.) work according to the Rule of Three, and you will find 13 and 6/1 of 100 parts, that is almost 14 (such parts where⯑of there are 100 in a Foot line measure) for the breadth of the lower part of the Mould.
Yau may likewise find it Geometrically thus.
HAving drawn the upper line and under line of the Arch, as CF, and AE, and drawn any Skew-back, as suppose AC in [Fig. 4.] make at discretion the Angle GCH in [Fig. 5.] then take the upper line CF, and set it from C. to F; also take the lower line AE, and set it from C to E, and draw the line EF; then take the thickness of your Brick, which suppose to be two Inches, and set it from F to G, and draw GH, parallel to FE, I say FG is the breadth of the upper part of the Sommering Mould, and EH the breadth of the lower part: Then make your Sommering Mould true to those two lines, and beginning in the middle line FE, describe the streight lines by the Mould from the Key FE, until you come to the Skew-back AC, and then take of the Bevil lines, and set them on your Sommering Mould.
I shall conclude this Exercise with the Art of ma⯑king two sorts of Cements, for the Cementing Bricks.
[286]THere are two sorts of Cement, which some Bricklayers use in Cementing of Bricks for some kind of Mouldings, or in Cementing a block of Bricks, as they call it, for the Carving of Scroles or Capitals or such like, &c. One is called cold Cement, the other is called hot Ce⯑ment, because the former is made and used with⯑out Fire, but the latter is both made and used with Fire; the cold Cement being accounted a Secret, is known but to few Bricklayers, but the hot Cement is common.
To make the cold Cement.
TAke ½ a Pound of Old Cheshire-Cheese, pair of the Rine, and throw it away, cut or grate the Cheese very small, and put it into a Pot, put to it about a Pint of Cows-milk, let it stand all Night, the next Morning get the Whites of 12 or 14 Eggs, then take ½ a Pound of the best Unslackt or Quick Lime that you can get, and beat it to Powder in a Morter, then sift it through a fine Hair Sieve into a Tray or Bole of Wood, or into an Earthen Dish, to which put the Cheese and Milk, and stir them well together with a Trowel, or such like thing, breaking the Knots of Cheese, if there be any, then add the Whites of the Eggs, and Temper all well together, and so use it; this Cement will be a White Colour, but if you would have it of the Colour of the Brick, put into it either some very fine Brick-Dust, or Almegram, not too much, but only just to colour it.
To make the hot Cement.
[287]TAke one Pound of Rozin, one Quarter of a Pound of Bees-Wax, half an Ounce of fine Brick-Dust, half an Ounce of Chalk-Dust, or Powder of Chalk, sift both the Brick-Dust and Chalk-Dust through a fine Hair Sieve, (you may beat the Brick and the Chalk in a Morter, before you sift it) boil altogether in a Pipkin, or other Vessel, about a quarter of an hour, stir⯑ring it all the while with an Iron or a piece of Lath or such like, then take it of, and let it stand 4 or 5 Minutes, and 'tis fit for use.
Note, That the Bricks that are to be Cemen⯑ted with this kind of Cement, must be made hot by the Fire before you spread the Cement on them, and then rub them to and fro on one ano⯑ther, as Joiners do, when they Glew two Boards together.
FINIS.
