Of the denomination of Words.

THE only words neceſſary to be known gram⯑matically, are Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, and Participles.

A Noun is the name of a thing, as Horſe, Boat, Knife, &c.

A Pronoun is a ſubſtitute for a Noun, as I, he, ſhe, &c.

An Adjective expreſſes the quality of a Noun, as a ſound Horſe; an open Boat; a ſharp Knife; here ſound, open, and ſharp, are Verbs.

A Verb implies the action of the Noun, and an Adverb the action of the Verb, as the horſe gallops, the boat ſails, the knife cuts: Here galloping is the action of the horſe; ſailing the action of the boat; and cutting the action of the knife; of courſe, gallops, ſails, and cuts are Verbs.

An Adverb expreſſes the action of the Verb. Thus the horſe gallops quick; the boat ſails briſkly; the knife cuts badly. Here quick expreſſes the action of galloping; briſkly that of ſailing, and badly that of cutting; of courſe quick, briſkly, and badly are Adverbs, that is, addition to Verbs.

[2]A Participle partakes of the qualities of both Noun and Verb, and implies, acting or being acted on.

Theſe are the different parts of ſpeech, I would wiſh my pupil to be acquainted with. I will treat of them in their order.

Of NOUNS.

Nouns Subſtantives are the general names o [...] things, except proper names, which are particular ones. A horſe, for example, is a general name, it may be my horſe or yours, ſo is a boat, a knife, &c. but proper names are particular ones, as Thomas, the name of a man: Jolly, the name of a horſe, &c. Horſe, boat, knife, &c. then are Nouns.

Nouns have two numbers, the ſingular and the plural.

The ſingular number expreſſes an individual, as a horſe, a boat, a knife; the plural expreſſes many, as horſes, boats, knives, &c.

In other languages Nouns have a variety of caſes, that is, vary in their terminations, but in Engliſh there are but two: theſe correſpond with the geni⯑tive and accuſative. Thus, inſtead of the head of a horſe, we ſay, a horſe's head, (not horſes, which is the plural number of horſe, but horſe's, which we call the genitive caſe ſingular); ſo boat's, knife's, as the boat's ſide, the knife's edge.

Plurals ending in s have no genitive caſes, we write womens, not women's; mens, not men's; and ſo on.

No Nouns have accuſative caſes, but Pronouns; theſe vary their terminations when they follow or are acted upon by verbs.

[3] I preceding a verb, is changed to me when fol⯑lowing one.

• We to us.
• Thou to thee or you.
• Ye to you.
• He to him.
• She to her.
• They to them.
• Who to whom.

Thus we ſay, "I love you." I here precedes the verb love; but I could not follow the ſame verb with propriety, it would be rendered me. We ſhould not ſay "You love I," but "you love me." So again, "Thou loveſt me;" "I love thee." Thou before the verb, thee after it. "We love God;" "God loves us;" and ſo on.

The words who and whom require a little further explanation. We ſay, "Kings are perſonages whom we revere." Here, though, in the preſent mode of ſpeech, whom precedes the verb revere, it is nevertheleſs uſed in the accuſative caſe, being the word which the verb revere governs and acts upon, anſwering to them, when we ſay "we revere them." So in the following example: "William was the perſon who came to me." Here the pro⯑noun who precedes the verb came, and governs it. "William was the perſon to whom I ſpoke." Here whom, though it precedes, or is placed, before the verb ſpoke, (to render it more agreeable to the ear) is governed or acted on by it.

Engliſh Nouns are then thus declined, none hav⯑ing accuſative caſes but the Pronouns.

[4] Note, The genitive caſe implies of or belonging to

The word whoſe is ſometimes uſed as the geni⯑tive of which, and chiefly in poetry.

But of which is now moſt common. "The mat⯑ters of which I ſpoke." Though whoſe may be uſed with propriety, when it refers to perſons; as "This is the young woman whoſe worth I know."

The genitive of the other Pronouns are as fol⯑low:

Mine, thine, ours, yours or theirs, may be uſed without a noun annexed, but my, thy, our, your, their, never. Thus, "Whoſe book is this?" The anſwer may be mine, or thine, or ours, or yours, or theirs, alone; but if we uſe my, thy, our, your, or their, we muſt add the noun book to it, a ſay, my book, thy book, our book, your book, or their book.

When the word own is added to the pronouns my, thy, his, hers, our, your, or their, it is to render the expreſſion more emphatical; as, "I live in my own houſe;" "I did it with my own hand." &c.

The plural number is formed, by adding s at the end of the ſingular number, as in the following:

[5]

But there are ſome exceptions to this general rule, as the following irregular plurals will ſhew.

The ſingular and plural of ſome few words are the ſame, as ſheep, deer, fern, hoſe, in which caſe the ſingular number is pointed out by a going be⯑fore them, as a ſheep, a deer.

Some words alſo have no ſingular number, as annals, arms, aſhes, bellows, breeches, creſſes, en⯑trails, ides, lungs, means, nones, ſciſſars, ſheers, ſnuf⯑fers, thanks, tongs, wages, dregs, news, &c.

[6]Proper names of men, cities, rivers, countries, &c. have no plurals. This rule, however, is not without ſome exceptions. We ſay, "There were ten Williams in company." And when ſpeaking of families, we ſay, the Marlboroughs, the Cavendiſhes, the Howards, &c.

I can, at no better time, mention the proper uſe of the pronouns who, which, and what, as interro⯑gatives or not.

Who is uſed only when ſpeaking of perſons, as, "Who is that man, or that woman?" Which, when we ſpeak of things, as, "Which is your cane? What, when we are ſpeaking of the kind, quality, or order of perſons or things, as, "What lady is that?" "What houſe is this?" "What (or which) place do you chuſe?"

When who and which are not interrogatives, that is, do not aſk a queſtion, they are uſed with the ſame diſtinction, that is, who for perſons, and which for things. We ſay, "William was the perſon who came to me." "This is the horſe which I bought."

Now we are upon the ſubject of nouns, it is pro⯑per to ſay ſomething of gender.

There are three genders the male, female, and neuter.

The male and female diſtinguiſh the two ſexes; whereas the neuter is applied to things without life, as not properly belonging to either of the other, as table, ſt [...]ne, rock, &c.

When we ſpeak of the male gender, we uſe the pronoun he; when of the female gender, ſhe; when of the neuter, it. Thus,

[7]We indeed deem moſt things that contain any thing within them to be of the female gender, as the earth, a ſhip, a houſe, &c. and in poetry, where writers will frequently give ſlight to their fancy, and perſonify inanimate ſubſtances, they are deemed o the male or female gender, according to the idea of the Poet. Thus Death, Time, the Sun, &c. are generally of the male gender; Faith, Hope, Cha⯑rity, &c. of the female, as being of the ſofter virtues.

But our language, in many inſtances, ſave us the neceſſity of adding pronouns to expreſs genders, for we often diſtinguiſh the different ſexes by di⯑ſtinct words; as for example,

There are alſo ſome few words, which diſtin⯑guiſh the female ſex from the male, by the ending; [8]

Where there are no words to diſtinguiſh the ſexes, we frequently add one to anſwer the pur⯑poſe. Thus we ſay, a male-child, a female-child, a he-goat, a ſhe-goat, a man ſervant, a maid-ſervant, a cock-ſparrow, a hen-ſparrow, or the like.

Of ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives are words which cannot ſtand alone, but are added to nouns to expreſs their quality, as black, white, wiſe, fooliſh, round, ſquare, &c. Thus we ſay, a black dog, a wiſe man, a round table.

There are three degrees of Adjectives, called degrees of Compariſon, the poſitive, comparative, and ſuperlative.

• 1. The poſitive degree is the quality itſelf, ſimply, as black, white, wiſe, &c.
• 2. The comparative expreſſes more of any one thing than another, and is formed by adding er to t [...]e poſitive, as blacker, whiter, wiſer: ſometimes, in⯑ſtead of ſaying blacker, we ſay more black; for white, more white; for wiſer, more wiſe, &c.
• 3. The ſuperlative degree implies the higheſt, and is formed [...]y the termination eſ [...], or the [...] moſt before the poſitive. Thus blackeſt, [...] black; whiteſt, or moſt white; wiſeſt or mo [...] [...]

Some ſuperlatives are formed, by adding [...] moſt as a termination; thus nether [...] [9]outer, outermoſt; under, undermoſt; upper, upper⯑moſt; in, inner, innermoſt, &c.

Many Adjectives do not admit of compariſon by terminations, but are only compared by more and moſt, as benevolent, more benevolent, moſt benevolent. Some authors have uſed ſhadieſt, virtuouſeſt, famouſeſt, mortaleſt, naturalleſt, powerfulleſt, inventiveſt, trifling⯑eſt, &c. but theſe are liberties which every one cannot take, and are inelegant after all.

Some again are irregularly compared, as,

Indeed, the compariſon of Adjectives is very un⯑certain, and being much regulated by the ear or agreeableneſs of ſounds, cannot well be reduced to rules.

When a noun is ſubſtituted for an adjective, and added to another noun by hyphen (-), ſuch two words are called compound words, as Turkey-Leather, Mountain-wine, man-ſervant, ſea-fiſh, &c.

Of VERBS.

Verbs, as I obſerved, expreſs the action of Nouns.

A Verb is ſaid to have ſeveral moods and tenſes. We ſhall have occaſion only to name the Infinitive mood, which is known by the word to preceding it, as to love, to hate, &c. and two of the Tenſes, the preſent, and the paſt: theſe two are expreſſed [10]by terminations, the other tenſes are expreſſed [...] the auxiliary verbs ſhall, will, and have, precedin [...] them, of courſe it is not neceſſary to mention ther [...] as we have nothing to do but with the right uſe words themſelves.

The preſent time or tenſe is expreſſed by the ve [...] itſelf, as burn, love, hate; the paſt time by the ter⯑mination ed, as burned, loved, hated.

A Verb has alſo three perſons, 1ſt, 2d, and 3 [...] and, like Nouns, two numbers, ſingular and plur [...].

The three perſons in the ſingular of verbs are thou, and he or ſhe; in the plural, We, ye, a [...] they. Thus,

[11]There are two ſorts of verbs, active and paſſive. [...] love is a verb active; to be loved, a verb paſſive; [...] ſtill, according to my firſt definition of a verb, [...] love, or be loved, implies the action of the perſon [...]ving.

The paſſive verb is formed by the addition of the [...]xiliary or aſſiſting verb, to be. Thus, in the pre⯑ [...]nt tenſe or time,

Now, by adding the word love to each, it will [...] thus:

The other auxiliary verbs are have, ſhall, will, [...], may, can. Have being the principal, we will [...] through the tenſes of this.

There is ſtill another form of Engliſh ver [...] in, which the ſign of the Infinitive mood to added to the verb do, which it is neceſſary to learn.

In the ſubſequent tenſes, did is changed to do I have done, I had done, &c.

By rapid utterance, or poetical contraction, love is often uſed for loved; ſnatch'd for ſnatch [...] dwelt for dwelled; ſmelt for ſmelled; and ſo on.

But not to multiply rules, and burthen the learn⯑er's memory with terms, the following liſt of regular Verbs in their preſent and paſt tenſes w [...] be ſufficient to inſtruct. Theſe he ſhould well [...] ⯑member.

Theſe rules premiſed, the great art in writing and ſpeaking correctly, is to avoid falſe concords; that is, the ſingular number muſt never be coupled with the plural, &c. Alſo,

• 1. The noun or pronoun, and the verb following it, muſt be of the ſame number and perſon. We muſt not ſay, I were, I being the firſt perſon, were the ſecond, but I am, both in the firſt perſon; nei⯑ther ſhould we ſay, thou were, thou being ſingular, and were plural, but thou wert, both ſingular.
• [17]2. We muſt take care to uſe the proper word to expreſs the right time, whether it be preſent or paſt. In the irregular verbs, the foregoing liſt will point out the word, in the regular ones, the termination ed will always expreſs the paſt time. Thus, for example, we muſt not ſay, "he breaked the bowl," but broke it; not "he come home," but came.
• 3. In the uſe of the words this and that, which in the plural number are theſe and thoſe, we muſt take care that they agree with the number of he word they refer to. We muſt not ſay this men or that men, the one being ſingular, the other plural, but this or that man, theſe or thoſe men. But where a noun has no ſingular number, we may add this or that to the plural of ſuch words: thus we may ſay with propriety, "by this or that means." So nouns wanting a ſingular number are ſometimes joined to a verb ſingular, but inelegantly, as, "the news is ſta [...]e;" "your wages is ſmall."
• 4. Two or more names or things in the ſingular number, require the verb to be in the plural. Thus "William and John are (not is) good lads," "The ſun and wind overcame (not overcome) me."
• 5. Names of a multitude may have either a ſin⯑gular or a plural verb. Thus we may ſay, "The Parliament is or are ſitting."
• 6. When two or more nouns, of different num⯑bers, follow each other with the word or or nor be⯑tween them, and are equally related to a common verb; the verb ſhould agree with the noun next it. For example, "Either the huſband, the wife, or their children, are in the houſe", "Neither the huſband, the children, nor the wife, is in the houſe.".
• [18]7. Two negatives make an affirmative. "I wasn't good for nothing," implies, "It was good ſo ſomething." "I can't eat no more," means, "can eat more."
• 8. The participle preſent is frequently ſubſtituted for the In [...]initive mood of a verb, and with ele⯑gance. Thus, inſtead of "I like to work," we may ſay "I like working." "For he delights to walk, we may ſay, "He delights in walking."
• 9. After the auxiliary verb have, it would be improper to put the paſt time; the participle ſhould always follow. Thus, it would be ingrammatica [...] to ſay, "I have ſaw, or "I have wrote;" it ſhould be, "I have ſeen," or "I have written."
• 10. When the leading adverbs are whether o [...] either, or muſt follow in the ſame ſentence; where the leading adverb is neither, nor muſt follow Thus, "Whether you or I ſhall go, is not yet de⯑termined." "Either your or I muſt ride." "Nei⯑ther you nor I muſt ſpeak."
• 11. All repetitions of the ſame word, nay of words which expreſs the ſame thing, are carefully to [...]voided, except when the ſenſe would be otherwiſe obſcure, or when it is to excite the atten⯑tion. For example, a repetition of the word from in the following ſentence is allowable: the paſſage would not be clear without it. "It proceeds not from ſtupidity, or a ſlothful neglect, but from a generous liberality of ſoul. When it is to excite attention, a repetition is beautiful. "Every acti⯑on, nay every attention, every deſign of man, is known to the Almighty."
• 12. With reſpect to Adjectives, none ſhould be uſed but ſuch as are neceſſary to explain the ſubject more fully. To ſay burning or ſhining fire, is in⯑elegant, [19]becauſe the firſt idea of fire is, that it burns and ſhines; but if neceſſary, we may employ adjectives to expreſs its other qualities, as conſum⯑ing, ſparkling, briſk, &c.

In ſhort, the words of a ſentence ought generally to be as different from one another, both in ſenſe and ſound, as the nature of the ſubject and the har⯑mony of the period will admit. On this the beauty of a ſentence depends, the ſound being, as it were, an echo to the ſenſe, and, independent of this, on the ſmoothneſs of the words, the choice of adjec⯑tives, and the eaſy flow of its diction. And in general, the ſhorter the period, the more nervous and emphatical it is.

An OBSERVATION or two on WRITING and READING.

In writing, never uſe capital letters to begin a word, unleſs it be a proper name, or at the begin⯑ning of a ſentence. Note, A full ſtop, or note of admiration (!) or interrogation (?), always ends a ſentence.

If you quote an Author in his own words, always begin the quotation with a capital letter.

The word I or Oh ſhould be always written with a capital. Every word you wiſh to mark as em⯑phatic, ſhould begin with a capital, and have a line drawn under it; thus, Mark.

In order to read well,

• 1. Every one ſhould read in an eaſy familiar tone, as if he were ſpeaking, (expect it be a prayer, [20]in which caſe, a degree of ſolemnity is required) and ſhould adapt his voice to the ſubject-matter he is reading.
• 2. When reading, caſt your eye forwards to the words following, that you may have ſeen them before you are to pronounce them. This will prevent ſtammering, or a diſagreeable pauſe.
• 3. Attend to the ſtops, and pauſe at a comma, (,) whilſt you can count one; at a ſemicolon, (;) two; at a colon, (:) three; and at a full ſtop, (.) four, Notes of interrogation (?) and admiration, (!) are full ſtops. A line (thus, —) intimates a longer pauſe than that of full ſtop, and at every freſh paragraph we are to pauſe longer ſtill.
• 4. Never fetch or draw the breath, where there is no ſtop; nor paſs a ſtop without a pauſe. Pauſe proportionably at every ſtop, utter each word di⯑ſtinctly, ſound the laſt letter of every word, read ſlow, and you will read very intelligibly.
• 5. In reading a ſentence, the voice ſhould be gently raiſed, until you get to the middle, (and the middle of a ſentence is generally marked with a colon) and then ſhould gradually fall to the end of it: but take care, that at the end of a ſentence, you drop not the voice too low, ſo as not to be well heard to the laſt word.
• 6. In queſtions and paſſages of admiration, the voice ſhould not fall, as at a full ſtop, but be kept up higher and higher to the end.
• 7. To give ſpirit and energy to a ſentence, the leading or principal word, ſhould be pronounced emphatically. To find out which is the emphatical word, conſider the chief deſign of the writer, and that word which ſhews ſuch deſign moſt, is the word to be uttered emphatically.

[21]When a noun is the emphatical word, and at⯑tended with an adjective, the ſtroke of the voice ſhould be on the noun, and the adjective be only ſwelled; unleſs it appears that the ſtreſs is to be laid on the adjective. The emphatic words in the fol⯑lowing paſſage are printed in Italics.

But where two words are ſet in oppoſition to each other, and one is pronounced emphatically, the other ſhould be ſo too; as in the ſentence. "If they attack, we will attack; for our cauſe is as good as theirs."

The emphaſis is of ſuch importance in reading and ſpeaking, that wrong placing it may alter the ſenſe materially. The following line is an old ex⯑ample upon this ſubject.

Will you ride to town to-day?

By laying the emphaſis on will, the anſwer may be yes or no.

By laying it on you, the anſwer may be, "No, but my ſon will."

By laying it on ride, the anſwer may be, "I in⯑tend to walk."

By placing it on the word town, the anſwer may be, "No, I ſhall ride to my farm."

And laying it on to-day, the anſwer may be, "Not until to-morrow."

Laſt of all, lay no emphaſis on words where there ſhould none be laid; for this is as great a mark of ignorance, as not laying it where it ſhould be laid.

[22] Rules for reading Engliſh verſe.

The general rule is to pronounce it, as if it wer [...] proſe, but with more deliberation; to obſerve th [...] ſtops with great exactneſs, placing the accent whe [...] it ought to be placed, (as will be ſhewn hereafter and the emphaſis upon the proper words on each line. Though there ſhould be no ſtop at the end of the line, the reader ſhould pauſe whilſt he can count one, merely to give notice to the hearer that the line is ended; and if the laſt word will bear two ſounds, (as words ending in y will) give it tha [...] which chymes beſt with its ſiſter line. I mean that line with which it is deſigned to rhyme.

For example,

Here ty in liberty, is ſounded as tee; but in the following line it ſhould be ſounded as ti.

However, whether pronounced as tee or ti, the laſt ſyllable ſhould be ſo feebly uttered, as not to fix any ſtop or accent upon it.

If verſe be read with the above attention, and ſtill ſound harſh upon the ear; the fault is not in the reader, but the poet, for thoſe verſes are not well penned, that cannot be read gracefully by the common rules of pronunciation.

[23]In verſes of three ſyllables, the accent is to be placed on the 1ſt and 3d. Thus,

In verſes of four ſyllables, the accent is to be placed on the 2d and 4th. Thus,

In verſes of ſix ſyllables, on every other ſyl⯑lable. Thus,

In verſes of ſeven ſyllables, in the 1ſt, 3d, 5th, and 7th. Thus,

In thoſe of eight, which is the uſual meaſure of ſhort poems, on the 2d, 4th, 6th, and 8th. Thus,

[24]In thoſe of ten, which is heroic or tragic poetry on the 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th. Thus,

In thoſe of twelve ſyllables, on every other ſyl⯑lable, beginning with the 2d.

[25]The verſe of fourteen ſyllables is now broken in⯑alternate lines of eight and ſix. Thus,

The Alexandrine verſe of twelve ſyllables is now [...] uſed to diverſify heroic lines of ten. Thus,

In pronouncing this line of twelve ſyllables, the [...]ce muſt pauſe at the end of the ſixth.

In verſes of quick meaſure, the words are ac⯑ [...]ted as below.

So again,