A CURSORY VIEW OF Engliſh Hiſtory.
DISCOURSE I.
HAVING given you, my dear Eugenius, ſome account of Sacred Hiſtory, I will now endeavour to give you ſome light into that of our own country.
You will find me all attention.
The Hiſtory of England may be divided into three periods. The firſt from the commencement of our knowledge of this country to it's conqueſt by the Normans; the ſecond, from that conqueſt to the alteration of the con⯑ſtitution, by the beheading of King Charles; and the laſt, from King Charles's death to the preſent time.
Before the Romans entered this iſland, which was fifty four years before the birth of Chriſt, the country was po⯑pulous, and ſtored with great plenty of animals, ſavage and domeſtic. Towns were few and houſe were meanly built and ſcattered up and down. The ancient Britons lived upon milk and fleſh, procured by hunting, and went al⯑moſt naked, painting their bodies with different colours; the only garments they wore were the ſkins of beaſts thrown over their ſhoulders, and another round their waiſts.
Had they no ſort of government among them?
What government they had, conſiſted of petty principalities, who united in caſes of common danger, and choſe a leader by general conſent. In ſhort, the people were little better than ſavages.
Had they no religion among them.?
They had a fraternity among them known by the name of Druids, who were majeſtrates as well as prieſts, and who taught a morality which principally conſiſited in juſ⯑tice [19] [...]ce and fortitude; they lived in woods and caverns and [...]ollow trees, and their food was acorns and wild berries. It was in the ſpirit of conqueſt that Julius Caeſar invaded his country, from Gaul, (now France) in order to add it [...]o the Roman territories. He appeared off the coaſt of [...]uſſex, and though the Britons made the braveſt opoſition, [...]ade good his landing and in a very littel time completed [...]is conqueſt; for the Britiſh forces laid down their arms and acknowledged the Roman power. Julius Caeſar made [...]o long ſtay in this iſland, but, having laid the Britons un⯑der tribute, returned to Gaul.
The ſecond expedition of the Romans into Britain, was [...]ander Claudius, in the year 50. Caractacus their King, made a brave defence, but was at laſt defeated and taken priſoner. From this time the Romans continued in Britain and mixed with the natives; but their troubles at home obliging the Roman emperor to call back his forces from this country, in the year 410, the Britons were once more leſt to themſelves; and ſuch were the diſſenſions of this people among themſelves, that forty years afterwards they were driven to the neceſſity of applying to the Romans for re⯑ [...]ief againſt the inroads of the Picts and Scots.
Who were theſe Picts?.
They were part of the natives of Britain, who had been driven by the Romans into the North of England, and who were always ravaging the Southern parts, whenever they had an opportunity.
Did the Romans afford them any ſuccour?.
None; they were too much engaged in quieting hoſtilities in their own country, to think of a people at ſo great a diſtance; the conſequence of which was, that the Britons invited over the Saxons who were then ſettled in Germany.
Were the Saxons as ſavage as the Britons?
No; the Saxons were a more poliſhed peo⯑ple, but not ſo refined as the Romans, and they dreſſed with a degree of elegance.—The women wore linen gar⯑ments trimmed and ſtriped with purple, and their hair fell in ringlets on their ſhoulders; no part of their bodies was [20]expoſed to the weather but their faces, their arms and their boſoms.
Did the Saxons come over?
On this invitation in the year 449, great numbers came to the aſſiſtance of the Britons, with Hen⯑gift and Horſa, two brothers, at their head. They marched in conjunction with the Britiſh arms againſt the Picts, and obliged them to retire into Scotland; and, finding them⯑ſelves very powerful, ſent over for more forces, turned their arms upon the Britons, and in one century ſubdued all England, and eſtabliſhed here ſeven different kindgoms, known by the name of the Saxon Heptarchy. This took place about 548.
What became of the Britons after this?.
Many went over to France, and ſettled in that part now called Britany; many of the fell in a variety of engagements; many were maſſacred, and the few of ſpirit that remained to eſcape the fury of their conquerors, retired to the mountainous parts of Wales and Cornwall. Such as choſe to continue among the Saxons, became ſlaves to this people; turning their hands to agriculture, and holding their lands at the will and pleaſure of their landlords. The children of theſe miſerable Britons, be⯑longed to the ſoil they tilled, like the reſt of the ſtock or cattle on it, and were the property of their owners.
I preſame this is what is underſtood by Villenage?
It is. A horrid cuſtom, originally borrowed from the Romans, and adopted by the Saxons by vicious imitation.
The Saxons now finding no enemies to ſubdue, began to fight with each other. The princes of the ſeven king⯑doms which they had erected, namely, Kent, South, Weſt and Eaſt Saxony, Northumberland, Eaſt Angles and Mer⯑cia, began mutually to rival and envy each other, and for the ſpace of above 200 years, all the miſery that ambi⯑tion, treachery, or war could bring upon a kingdom, was the conſequence of their animoſity; till, at laſt, in the year 800, Egbert, deſcended from the Weſt Saxon kings, partly by conqueſt, and partly by inheritance, became [21] [...]he firſt ſole monarch of England, the ſeven kingdoms be⯑ [...]ng in him united into one.
It was called England then at that time?.
It then firſt took this name, to diſtinguiſh it from the principality of Wales, ſtill poſſeſſed by the an⯑cient Britons, and from that part now called Scotland, poſſeſſed by the Picts and Scots.
No cuſtoms, truly Britiſh or Roman, were now to be ſeen. The language of the country, which had been either Latin or Celtic, was diſcontinued, and the Saxon, that is Engliſh, only was ſpoken. The kingdom was di⯑vided into counties or ſhires, and the Engliſh, if com⯑pared to the naked Britons at the invaſion of Caeſar, might be conſidered as polite. Houſes, furniture, cloaths and other luxuries were as general then as at preſent. They were only incapable of ſentimental pleaſure; all the learning of the times was centred in the clergy, who were over-run with ignorance and ſuperſtition.
Chriſtianity, I preſume, had not found a footing here?
Auſtin, the monk, had been ſent over by the Pope, in 597, in order to preach chriſtianity, and was made the firſt archbiſhop of Canterbury. He made many converts, but this little improved their manners.
Egbert was ſcarce ſettled on his throne, than the whole kingdom was alarmed by the approach of an unexpected enemy. A ſwarm of thoſe nations that poſſeſſed the countries bordering on the Baltic, began, under the names of Danes and Normans, to infeſt the weſtern coaſts of Europe, plundering thoſe very people who, ſome centuries before, had invaded the places where they were now ſet⯑tled, and driven out the inhabitants. The Normans fell upon the Northern coaſts of France; the Danes, on the Southern parts of England.
A. D. 832. The people of this iſland had been too much exhauſted in civil war to make much oppoſition. Some battles were fought, but the Danes kept their foot⯑ing, fortified poſts and paſſages, and built caſtles for their defence; of which there are many remains at this day.
How did the Saxons reliſh this?
The Danes and Saxons were originally from the ſame country, of courſe their ſimilitude of language, laws and manners, ſoon produced an intercourſe between both nations; and though they were ſtill enemies, the Danes gradually mingled with the people of England, and ſubmitted to it's government.
Were they of the ſame religion?
No. The Engliſh were chriſtians, and the Danes, Pagans; of courſe, though the Engliſh in ſome meaſure admitted them, yet they ſecretly hated them; this produced frequent contenſts, and frequently laid the country in blood.
In this period of cruelty, jealouſy and deſolation; a man ſeemed raiſed up to defend the rights of his bleeding coun⯑try, and improve the age in which he lived. This was Alfred, the fourth ſon of Ethelwolf, king of England, and grandſon of Egbert, who, on the death of his brother Ethelred, was called to the Engliſh crown, of which he was put into poſſeſſion only nominally, the country being over-run by the Danes.
His reign began with wars, and his firſt battles were fought with ſucceeſs; but, being at length overpowered, he was obliged to ſave himſelf by flight. He retired to the cottage of a cow-herd, in Somerſetſhire, and lived ſix months there, as a ſervant; no one being privy to this re⯑treat of his but his friend the Earl of Devonſhire.
What ſet him on the throne again?
A fortunate victory over the Danes, by the Earl of Devonſhire—Not knowing how to get at the ſtrenght of the enemy, Alfred diſguiſed himſelf as a ſhep⯑herd, and traverſed the Daniſh camp with a harp, and as he excelled on this inſtrument, he ſoon got acceſs to the Daniſh generals; finding they were divided among them⯑ſelves, he ſeized the favourable opportunity, flew to the Earl of Devonſhire, headed his troops, forced their camp and gained a complete victory.
A very enterpriſing man!.
He ſoon, by his addreſs, got himſelf acknow⯑ledged king by the Danes; he then beſieged London and took it; fitted out a fleet and repreſſed any further invaſi⯑on. [23]To him we are indebted for many of our mildeſt laws, [...]r the art of building with brick, and for the univerſity of Oxford, which he founded. The was an excellent hiſto⯑ [...]ian, a good Latin ſcholar; and from his reign Engliſh hiſ⯑ory may be ſaid to commence.
How long did he reign?
He died in the year 900, aged fifty one, after reign of more than twenty-eight years, and was ſucceed⯑ed by his ſecond ſon Edward, in whoſe reign the univerſity of Cambridge was founded.
Who ſucceeded Edward?
His natural ſon Athelſtan, in 924, under whoſe auſpices the bible was tranſlated into Saxon, and the thriſtian religion gained ground. His ſon, Edmund the firſt, was his ſucceſſor, in 941; whoſe reign is no otherwiſe re⯑markable, than by his inſtituting the firſt capital puniſhment, having ordained that, in gangs of robbers, when taken, the oldeſt ſhould be hanged. He loſt his life in a very extra⯑ordinary manner, after a reign of ſeven years. Solemniz⯑ing a feſtival, in Glouceſterſhire, and obſerving a fellow, who had been baniſhed the kingdom for his crimes, fitting at one of the tables in the hall where he dined; he was ſo offended at his inſolence, that he ordered him to be appre⯑hended; and, perceiving the villain drawing a dagger, in order to defend himſelf, the king ſtarted up, and, catching him by the hair, dragged him our of the hall; but, in doing this he met his death, for the ruffian, in the ſcuffle, ſtab⯑bed him to the heart.
Edred, his brother, ſucceeded him, and was ſo weak a prince, that under him the monks gained great influence, and had the chief direction of affairs. He died in 955; left ſeveral ſons, but being very young they were ſet aſide, and Edwy, his eldeſt brother's ſon, was placed on the throne. At this time, the crown appears to have been elective, and thoſe elections wholly influenced by the cler⯑gy. The Engliſh during this ſhort reign were divided by re⯑ligious diſputes and involved in civil war, whilſt the Danes were increaſing in ſtrength and ſending over for freſh forces.
What do you mean by civil war?
A war at home, among ourſelves, one pa [...] of the people fighting with the other. Edred was elected king by the ſecular prieſts, but the monks, in 959, de⯑throned him, and placed his brother Edgar in his room.
England is ſaid then to have been exceed⯑ingly happy?
Happier than under any former one. Under this reign it's fleet amounted to upwards of four thouſand ſhips. Foreign princes came to Edgar's court and return⯑ed without moleſtation. Muſic, painting and poetry were held as refined accompliſhments, and gallantry was the characteriſtic of the king. It is related that he was en⯑joined by Dunſtan, archbiſhop of Canterbury, not to wear his crown for ſeven years, for having debauched a nun. His amour with the beautiful Elfrida, is worth your atten⯑tion.
Pray let me hear it.
She was the daughter of the Earl of Devon⯑ſhire, and Edgar, unwilling to credit the great report of her beauty, ſent Ethelwolfe, a friend to ſee her that he might be better ſatisfied, deſigning, if report ſpoke truth, to pay his addreſſes to her. This friend no ſooner ſaw her than he became deſperately in love with her, and forgetting his errand, made propoſals to her himſelf; his hand was ac⯑cepted and they were privately married: returning, how⯑ever, to court and aſſuring the king, that ſhe was ſo far from handſome that he wondered the world could ſpeak of her, Edgar thought no more of her. Sometime afterwards he repreſented to the king, that though the fortune of the Earl of Devonſhire's daughter would be trifting to a monarch, yet it would be an immenſe ſum to a needy ſubject, and ſo⯑licited his permiſſion to pay his court to her. Edgar con⯑ſenting, Ethelwolfe returned to his wife, and their nupti⯑als were publickly ſolemnized. Now, though he had the precaution not to let her appear at court, his treachery was not long concealed, Edgar was made acquainted with the whole, but diſembling his reſentment, took an opportuni⯑ty of viſiting the part of the country where ſhe lived. Ac⯑companied by his favourite, when he was near the place, he told him he had a curioſity to ſee his wife, of whom he [25]had a curioſity to ſee his wife, of whom he had formerly [...]ard ſo much. Ethelwolfe thunderſtruck, did all he could diſſwade him, but in vain; all he could obtain was to [...] before, under pretence of preparing her for the king's [...]eption. He then informed his wife of the ſteps he had [...]en to be poſſeſſed of her charms, and conjured her to [...]nceal her beauty as much as poſſible. Elfrida promiſed [...]mpliance, but prompted either by vanity or revenge, ſet [...]rſelf off to the beſt advantage. The king no ſooner ſaw [...]r but was ſmitten, and was inſtantly reſolved to have [...]r. He took his leave however with a ſeeming indiffer⯑ [...]ce. Ethelwolfe was ſoon after ſent to Northumberland. [...]a pretence of urgent affairs; and, in his journey was [...]urdered in a wood by the king's command, who took [...]frida to court and married her. Edgar, however was [...]aced among the number of the ſaints, by the Monks, [...]o have written his hiſtory.
Ladies you ſee were admitted to court in this early pe⯑ [...]d; but polite as the age ſeems to have been, there was [...]ll a degree of ſavage barbarity among the people.— [...]he defects of Edgar's government fell upon his ſucceſſors; [...]e power of the Monks encreaſed, and that of the ſtate Tened in proportion. Edgar died in 975, and was ſuc⯑ [...]eded by his ſon Edward the Martyr, ſo called, becauſe [...]ur years afterwards, at the age of 19, he fell a ſacrifice [...] the ambition of his ſtep-mother Elfrida, who ordered [...]m to be ſtabbed, to make way for her own ſon Ethel⯑ [...]d, II., ſon alſo of Edgar, who was crowned in his ſtead.
The Danes now becoming exceedingly troubleſome, and [...]helred finding himſelf unable to oppoſe them, com⯑ [...]unded with them for his ſafety; but ſoon after, ſtrength⯑ [...]ed by an alliance with the duke of Normandy, and [...]ich was the firſt connexion with that family, he laid a [...]teſtable ſcheme to maſſacre all the Danes throughout [...]e kingdom. The plot was carried into execution, and [...]oſt of them were deſtroyed in one day. This was in [...]e year 1002.
Suenon, king of Denmark, exaſperated at this ſlaugh⯑ [...] of his countrymen, ſoon landed in England, filled the [...]untry with blood, and obliged Ethelred to fly to Nor⯑mandy. [26]Suenon was proclaimed king, and ſoon af [...] dying, his ſon Canute was proclaimed; but, being oblig [...] to go back to Denmark, the Engliſh in his abſence call [...] back their baniſhed monarch, but he could never recov [...] his crown. Canute ſtill held it, and died here king [...] England, Denmark and Norway, in 1036.
This natural ſon Harold I. ſucceeded him by force [...] arms, and in order to extirpate the Engliſh royal famil [...] forged a letter from Emma, the widow of Ethelred [...] and afterwards wife of his father Canute, to her ſon's A [...] fred and Edward, Ethelred's children, who had fled Normandy; inviting them to England, to take the crown [...] when here, he ordered Alfred's eyes to be put out, b [...] Edward eſcaped, and was afterwards king. Harold dyi [...] in 1039, was ſucceeded by his brother Hardicanute, king [...] Denmark, third ſon of Canute by Emma, but, he dy [...] ſuddenly at a feaſt at Lambeth, in 1041, was ſucceed [...] by his half-brother Edward, who as I ſaid before, had fl [...] to Normandy, with his brother Alfred.
How long had the throne of England be in poſſeſſion of the Daniſh kings?
Thirty ſeven years, but with the death [...] Hradicanute, expired not only the dominion of, but [...] future attempts of invaſion from, the Danes. Thou [...] their ravages had continued for above two hundred yea [...] yet they left no change of laws, cuſtoms, language or [...] ⯑ligion. The many caſtles they built, and the many [...]milies they left behind them, ſerved alone to diſcover [...] places of their eſtabliſhment. After the acceſſion [...] Edward to the crown, the Engliſh and Danes, as if w [...] ⯑ried with mutual ſlaughter, united in ſupport of gove [...] ⯑ment and peaceably living among each other, form [...] ever after but one people.
The reign of Edward was long and happy, he had li [...] long in Normandy, and in ſome meaſure adopted the lan⯑guage and learning of that country. It was by the [...] ⯑tereſt of Earl Godwin that Edward obtained the crow [...] having married this nobleman's daughter; but having [...] children by her, it led Godwin to endeavour at eſtabl [...] ⯑ing his own ſon Harold on the throne; which, on the de⯑ [...] [27]of Edward, he ſucceeded in, but not without Edward's having, on his death-bed, nominated William, Duke of Normandy, as his ſucceſſor.
Was not his Edward the firſt King who pre⯑tended to cure the king's evil, by touching the affected part?
He was.—And the ſuperſtituous ceremony continued to be practiſed by the ſovereigns of England till the reign of King George the firſt, who wiſely dropped it. It was the ſanctity of Edward that gave riſe to the belief of ſo extraordinary a cure; and it was this, his continence and his pretending to have the gift of prophecy, that procured him a diſtinguiſhed place amodg the ſaints: he was called Edward the confeſſor.
On the death of Edward, in 1066, Harold the ſecond, the ſon of Earl Godwin, took poſſeſſion of the throne and with the conſent of the people. His brother Toſti alſo put in a claim for it as elder brother, but Harold was in poſ⯑ſeſſion, and though Toſti procured aſſiſtance from Nor⯑way, and invaded England in the north, it anſwered no purpoſe; the invaders were defeated at the battle of Stand⯑ford, and were obliged to retire; but the joy of this vic⯑tory was ſoon damped, by the news that Williams, duke of Normandy had landed at Haſtings, in Suſſex, with a great army, determined to ſupport his claim to the crown, from the nomination of Edward. This happened Sep. 28. 1066.
Who was this William?
He was the natural ſon of Robert, duke of Normandy, by a tanner's daughter. Harold returned from the north, with all the forces he could muſter, and gave him battle on the 14th day of October following, at Haſtings. William ſent an offer to Harold to decide the diſpute by ſingle combat, and ſpare the effuſion of the peoples blood, but Harold refuſed, and ſaid he would leave it to the determination of God. Numerous were the forces on both ſides, and great was the conteſt. William had three horſes killed under him, and loſt 15000 men. Harold loſt near 60,000; he was as active and brave as man could be, but was conquered after all. Making a [28]furious onſet at the head of his troops, he was ſhot through the ſkull with an arrow, and all the courage of the Engliſh died with him.
This was the end of the Saxon monarchy in England, which had continued for more than ſix hundred years, and cloſes the firſt period of the Britiſh hiſtory.
DISCOURSE II. THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.The Second Period.
TO purſue now the thread of our hiſtory, we will enter upon that part which gives birth to our preſent happy conſtitution; thoſe laws ſo much eſteemed by the reſt of Europe, and thoſe liberties ſo dear to every Engliſhman.
Immediately after the battle of Haſtings, the conquero [...] marched to London; where the biſhops and magiſtrate [...] met him and offered him the crown. Numberleſs, how⯑ever, were the inſurrections of the people againſt their new monarch; ſo that William, though diſpoſed to mild⯑neſs, was forced to purſue rigorous meaſures. He had en⯑gaged to provide for thoſe adventurers, who accompanie [...] him to England, and as he was diffident of the Engliſh he removed them from all places of truſt and confidence and gave them to his Norman followers. The Engliſh were deprived of arms and forbidden to have any light i [...] their houſes after eight o'clock in the evening, at which time a bell was rung, called a curfew, as a warning to pu [...] their fire and candle out.
Were there none of Edward's family living t [...] conteſt the crown?
There was a ſon of Edmund II. Edward th [...] martyr's brother, called Edgar Atheling. This young man was abroad when Canute took poſſeſſion of the crown His father, Edmund, had been proclaimed king on th [...] [29]death of Suenon king of Denmark, in 1015, who had [...]ſurped the Engliſh crown, but was ſoon after murdered at Oxford, when Canute had quiet poſſeſſion of the throne. This young man, Edgar Atheling, applyed to the king [...]f Scotland for aſſiſtance, and under his protection invad⯑ [...]d England in the north. William met their forces, but [...]nſtead of a battle propoſed a negociation, Edgar reſigned [...]is pretenſions at this treaty, and paſſed the remainder of his life as a private gentleman.
William now ſeated ſecurely on the throne, introduced [...]everal new regulations, he ordered all law-proceedings [...]o be in the Norman language, deprived biſhops from [...]olding the office of judges, which they had enjoyed du⯑ [...]ing all the Saxons reigns, reſtrained the clergy, and la⯑boured to aboliſh trials by ordeal and by battle.
Of what nature was this trial by ordeal?
This was a remnant of Pagan ſuperſtition, [...]eld in veneration by the Saxons, and was made uſe of to prove, whether perſons accuſed, were innocent or guilty. Water-ordeal was confined to the lower claſs of people, [...]re-ordeal to the upper. In water-ordeal, the accuſed was thrown bound into the water, if he ſunk, he was declared [...]nnocent; if he ſwam, guilty: In fire-ordeal, the accuſed perſon was brought into an open plain, and ſeveral plough⯑ [...]hares heated red-hot, were placed at equal diſtances be⯑fore him; over theſe he was to walk blind-fold, and if he [...]miſſed them, by treading between them, he was acquitted of the charge. As theſe trials were ſometimes allowed to [...]e performed by deputy, we hence derive the expreſſion, "of going through fire and water to ſerve another." This mode of trial was not however aboliſhed, till the [...]eign of Henry III.
What was the trial by battle?
This was another inſtance of the deplorable barbarity of the times. It was performed by ſingle com⯑bat, in a place appointed for the purpoſe, between the ac⯑cuſer and the accuſed. He that conquered was deemed innocent, and the other, if he ſurvived, was ſure to ſuffer as a malefactor ſome time after. This mode of trial ſtill continues legal, though out of uſe. Trial by battle, as [30]well as ordeal, was ſet aſide in William's reign, and that by a jury of twelve men, with which you are acquainted, and which was common among the Saxons, was confirmed by him with all the ſanction of royalty.
It is certainly more conſiſtent with reaſon and juſtice.
William having continued 13 years in Eng⯑land, now thought of re-viſiting his native dominions, being eſtabliſhed in the dukedom of Normandy, on the death of his father; but, he was no ſooner gone, than a conſpiracy was ſet on foot, carried on by the Normans as well as Engliſh. William, to gratify his followers from Normandy, had diſpoſed of the eſtates of thoſe who fell in the battle of Haſtings, among them. He gave each a certain quantity of land, with all the inhabitants dwelling on that land; ſo that theſe inhabitants, were wholly at the will of their Lord, and they were called his bondmen. For this land, the Lord was obliged to arm his vaſſals and march out in defence of the king, whenever he pleaſed to call upon them; ſo, that each lord of a diſtrict, or baron was the head of a little army: this manner of holding lands is called, feudal tenure, and was an improvement of that ſtate of villenage, of which I have already ſpoken; for at this time there was no ſtanding army.
How long did this ſtate of vaſſalage con⯑tinue?
Military ſervices for land, was dropped under the reign of Henry II. when money was paid in lieu of them; but a remnant of this vaſſalage continues to this day. I have explained to you the nature of manors and copyhold eſtates, which are now held at the will of the lords of the manors, in which thoſe eſtates lie, and for which certain acknowledgments are now made by the tenants. See the Index.
I recollect it well. Pleaſe to go on with the conſpiracy you mentioned.
The Norman barons conceiving themſelves aggrieved, carried on a ſecret correſpondence with the kings of Denmark and Ireland, and a number of Daniſh forces were to invade this country, in the abſence of [31]William; but, the conſpiracy was diſcovered before the Danes arrived, and two noblemen were beheaded on the [...]ccaſion.
Though good fortune ſeemed to mark his reign thus [...]ar, the decline of it was interrupted with domeſtic quar [...] ⯑els. He had three ſons, Robert, William and Henry. His eldeſt ſon Robert, encouraged by the king of France, [...]ade an attempt to ſieze Normandy, and William, who could place no confidence but in the Engliſh, was obliged [...]o uſe Engliſh forces to bring this unnatural ſon to his [...]uty, and it ſo happened by the chance of battle, that in [...]n engagement between the Normans and the Engliſh, William and his ſon, fought with each other unknowingly. The ſon attacked him with ſuch fury, that his aged father [...]ell to the ground with the blow, and had not William called out and his voice been recollected by his ſon, his death would immediately have followed; but Robert, [...]tung with remorſe and a conſciouſneſs of duty, leaped from his horſe, raiſed his father from the ground, fell proſtate before him, begged pardon for his offences, and promiſed future obedience. The king moved by the im⯑pulſe of nature, took him once more to his arms, and both armies, ſpectators of this affecting ſcene, participa⯑ted in their joy and reconciliation.
William did not live many years after this, he invaded France in the year 1088, with an Engliſh army, and leaping a ditch, the pummel of his ſaddle hurt him, and occaſioned a rupture, of which he died, leaving to his ſon Robert the dukedom of Normandy, and the crown of England, to his ſon William.
William II. on aſcending the Engliſh throne, had two very powerful parties to oppoſe; the nobility, who ſtill aſpired to the ſame freedom they poſſeſſed under the Saxon kings, and the clergy, who wiſhed to erect themſelves into a diſtinct government.
Odo, his own uncle, took upon him to diſpute his title, and being ſupported in this by his brother Robert, Wil⯑liam waged war with Robert, and carried it on with vigour and ſucceſs. Henry, the third brother, was alſo involved in this war, having taken up arms for not being [32]paid the money his father left him. Such an unnatural conteſt between three brothers, ferved only to weaken themſelves, and ſtrengthen their enemies. The Scots and Welch, took this opportunity to make incurſions upon the Engliſh; the clergy complained of encroachments on their privileges, the people murmured at the increaſe o [...] taxes, and the whole country was in arms.
But now the attention of all Europe was called off to one of the moſt remarkable events that hiſtory can pro⯑duce, I mean the arming for the firſt cruſade.
What was that?
Peter, ſurnamed the Hermit, who had beheld with indignation, the cruel manner in which the infidels (who had poſſeſſion of Chriſt's ſepulchre in the holy land) treated the chriſtians, who went on pilgrimage there, re⯑turned to Europe, reſolved to inſpire the princes of chriſt⯑endom with a zeal for it's recovery: for the chriſtians of that age, thought it an eſſential part of their duty, to go to this tomb occaſionally and ſay their prayers to God. Bare-headed and bare-footed, therefore, in the ſpirit of ſu⯑perſtition, he travelled from court to court, preaching as he went, and inflaming the zeal of every rank of people. Pope Urban II. himſelf preached the neceſſity of this holy war, and numberleſs perſons of all degrees and na⯑tions ardently embraced the cauſe, and put on the red⯑croſs, the badge of their profeſſion. Among this number was Robert, duke of Normandy. In order to ſupply money for this expenſive undertaking, he offered to mortgage his dukedom to his brother William, for a ſti⯑pulated ſum. William, eagerly embraced the propoſal. He raiſed the money upon the clergy of this kingdom, and when his brother was gone, took peaceable poſſeſſion of his dukedom.
In this manner, was Normandy again united to the Engliſh crown, and from this union, afterwards aroſe thoſe wars with France, which for whole centuries, continued to depopulate both nations.
Was not this William killed as he was hunt⯑ing?
Yes. In the new foreſt, in Hampſhire, which his father had made, by laying waſte a number of [...]illages and baniſhing the legal poſſeſſors. He was acci⯑dentally ſhot through the heart with an arrow, by a gen⯑ [...]eman hunting with him. This happened in the 44th year of his age, and in the year 1100.
Who ſucceeded him?
There were now two competitors for the Throne, Robert, who was engaged in the holy war, and Henry the youngeſt brother, who remained at home. Henry, however, took poſſeſion of it, and endeavoured to ſecure that poſſeſſion, by gaining the affections of the people. He therefore once more confirmed the Saxon [...]aws, and indulged the clergy, in all their former privi⯑leges.
On Robert's return from the holy land, where he re⯑fuſed to be crowned king of Jeruſalem, he found himſelf deprived of a kingdom, which, as elder brother to Wil⯑liam, he conſidered as his birth-right. He could not, however, recover it, nor his dukedom of Normandy; but in his attempt was taken priſoner, and confined twen⯑ty ſix years in Cardiff-caſtle, in Wales, where he died.
To defend his poſſeſſions in Normandy, Henry was obliged to wage war with France, and during one of the engagements a French cavalier perſonally attacked the king, and ſtruck him twice on the head, with ſuch force that all his armour ſtreamed with blood. Henry, however, no way intimidated, continued the ſingle combat with re⯑ſolution, and, ſummoning all his ſtrength, levelled ſuch a blow at his antagoniſt as threw him from his horſe, and the king took him priſoner. This decided the victory, in favour of the Engliſh, and haſtened a peace.
Henry now returning victorious from abroad, brought with him a numerous retinue of the nobility. In one of the veſſels of the fleet, his only ſon and ſeveral young noblemen, his companions, went together to render the voyage more agreeable. The young prince, deſirous to be firſt a-ſhore, promiſed the ſeamen a reward, if they came in foremoſt. This emulation was fatal to them all; the pilot ran the ſhip upon a rock, and immediately ſhe [34]was daſhed to pieces. The prince, however, was put in⯑to a boat, and would have eſcaped, had he not been called back by the cries of Matilda, his ſiſter, who was married to the emperor of Germany, Henry V. and who was ther in the ſame ſhip; he prevailed upon the ſailors to row back to take her in; and the approach of ſave their lives, ſeveral leaped in, ſo that the boat was over-loaded, and all except one, went to the bottom. The prince was eighteen years old. When Henry was informed of this, he cover⯑ed his face and never laughed afterwards.
Was Matilda drowned among the reſt?
The veſſel in which ſhe was, eſcaped, and Matilda in it. The emperor ſoon after dying, ſhe was married to Geoffrey of Plantagenet, earl of Angou; by him ſhe had a ſon, named Henry. The king obliged the nobility to take an oath to ſupport his daughter on the throne, after his deceaſe, which they did, by obſerved it no longer than whilſt they were obliged to obey. Hen⯑ry did not long ſurvive this, but died in the year 1135.
During the reign of Henry, the barons and the clergy were growing into power. each was a petty tyrant over thoſe who held under him. In order, therefore, to con⯑firm privileges ſo lately acquired, they joined in electing a king, who might owe his ſceptre to them. They fixed on Stephen, nephew to the deceaſed king; and as for their oaths to Matilda, (or Maude, as ſhe was called,) the biſhops gave them an abſolution.
The kingdom now began to wear the face of ariſtoracy, in which the barons and clergy might be ſaid to command. They built caſtles, fortified and garriſoned them with their own troops, from whence, when offended, they would bid their monarch defiance.
And did Stephen ſubmit to this?
He could not help himſelf; he oppoſed their meaſures, took ſome of their caſtles by force; but as the people were dependant on the barons, the king could make but little head againſt them. Matilda now claimed the crown in purſuance of her father's diſpoſal of it. She came over from Normandy with an armed force, and took [35]poſſeſſion of the caſtle of Arundel, in Suſſex. A civil war was the conſequence, a victory was obtained againſt the king; and though he fought with a party of the enemy with the utmoſt intrepidity, performing more than could be expected from a ſingle arm, his ſword flying in pieces he was obliged to ſurrender himſelf a priſoner. The con⯑queror conducted him from the field and ignominiouſly ſaid him in irons.
Matilda was now proclaimed queen but as ſhe diſdain⯑ed to accept the ſhadow of royalty, and the barons and clergy intending to grant no more, offence was ſoon given. Matilda was obliged to quit England again, Stephen was releaſed and once more placed upon the throne.
Stephen, like Matilda, not caring to ſubmit to the dic⯑tates of his ſubjects; the barons invited over Henry, Ma⯑tilda's ſon, then twenty one years of age, who had been long acknowledged as duke of Normandy. He ſoon land⯑ed with a formidable army, and another civil war would have enſued, had it not been agreed on by all parties, that Stephen ſhould enjoy the crown for life, and that Henry ſhould be his ſucceſſor. Stephen's death, the year follow⯑ing, ſoon put his rival in poſſeſſion.
Henry Plantagenet aſcending the throne of England in 1160, by hereditary ſucceſſion and with the univerſal aſſent of his people; and, conſcious of his ſtrength, began to aſſume thoſe privileges which had been torn from the crown, through the weakneſs of his predeceſſors.
What ſteps did he take?
He demoliſhed the caſtles, diſmiſſed all foreign troops, reſumed the crown lands, and enacted ſome laws by which the people became, in ſome meaſure, indepen⯑dent of the barons. He chartered ſeveral towns, and laid the ground-work of Engliſh liberty. Having thus dimi⯑niſhed the power of the barons, by enlarging that of the people, he undertook to humble the clergy. He propo⯑ſed, that the biſhops ſhould not be permitted to go to Rome; that no ſubject ſhould appeal to the Pope; that no officer of the crown, ſhould be excommunicated, or ſuſpended by the clergy; and, that the clergy themſelves ſhould be ſubject to the temporal judge. Theſe propo⯑ſitions [36]were agreed to; Becket, archbiſhop of Canter⯑bury, however, a powerful and haughty man, not caring to ſubmit, was condemned as a traitor; but, eſcaped puniſhment, by flying his country.
The Pope (Alexander III.) eſpouſed Becket's quarrel; and, after a variety of conferences and negociations; with threats and excommunications on the part of the Pope, which continued ſome years, Henry thought proper to acquieſce and pardon him. The archbiſhop then made his way into London, amidſt the exclamations of the peo⯑ple. He was no ſooner however re-inſtated in his power, than he excommunicated two of the nobility, and ſuſpended ſeveral of the biſhops who had been his enemies. Com⯑plaint was made to the king, then in Normandy, and four gentlemen at the inſtance of Henry, as is ſuppoſed, under⯑took to curb his inſolence: they haſtened to England, entered the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was offici⯑ating, and with a few attendants, beat out his brains, with clubs, at the foot of the altar.
His death confirmed thoſe privileges to the clergy, which his oppoſition could not do. He was conſidered as a martyr to his cauſe, and to have fallen by the hand of Henry.
In order to diveſt the attention of the public from ſuſ⯑picions of this nature, Henry undertook the conqueſt of Ireland; a project formed ſome years before, but deferred on account of his long-protracted quarrel with Becket. The more readily to gain the Pope's conſent to this, (for nothing then could be done without the ſanction of Rome) he made oath, that he was no way concerned in the aſſaſſi⯑nation of this archbiſhop, and made a ſolemn vow, to go bare-footed to Becket's tomb, and there receive the chiſcipline of the church; he kept his vow, and ſometime after was whipped by the Monks accordingly.
Having abtained the Pope's conſent, he ſubdued Ire⯑land with a rapidity equal to his wiſhes; but the happineſs he received from this new acceſſion of power, was ſoon allayed, by a conſpiracy in his own family. This mo⯑narch had not many vices, but gallantry was one of them. His queen was diſagreeable, and Henry was faithleſs. [37]His amours with the fair Roſamond, whom he kept ſe⯑ [...]etly in Woodſtock-park, were ſoon diſcovered by his [...]een. She found her out, went to her and obliged her [...] take poiſon.
The matter ended not here; the queen's ſons took part [...] her reſentment, and a conſpiracy was formed, abetted [...] all the malecontents in the kingdom. Henry oppoſed [...]ith his uſual prudence and reſolution, and ſeemed every [...]here victorious, but aſcribing the oppoſition of his own children to the anger of heaven, he was reſolved by an [...]emplary penance, to conciliate it's favour. This pen⯑ [...]ce, was going as I ſaid, to Becket's tomb, and ſubmitting [...] be ſcourged by the Monks. It did not however recon⯑ [...]le him to his family; ſo that he pined with grief, and, [...]nding his end approach, cauſed himſelf to be carried into [...]e church at Chinon, in Normandy, and expired before [...]e altar, with ſcarce a ſingle attendant to deplore his fall.
We are indebted however to this king, for [...]e of our dominions.
Nay, he not only conquered Ireland, but, raiſed 300,000 l. among king of Scotland, he took him priſoner, [...]nd made him give up the independency of his crown.
Henry II. was ſucceeded by his ſecond ſon, Richard I. [...] 1189. A romantic deſire for ſtrange adventures, and [...] immoderate zeal for the externals of chriſtianity, were [...]e ruling paſſions of the times, and they readily became [...]oſe of Richard. Impreſſed with a deſire of reſcuing the [...]ply land from the infidels, he left England; and, with a [...]umerous army, paſſed through France, took in his way [...]e iſland of Cyprus, from a chriſtian prince; landed in [...]aleſtine; conquered Saladine, with the ſlaughter of [...]0,000 Saracens; took ſeveral cities from the infidels, [...]d gained great reputation for conduct and perſonal bra⯑very; having concluded a truce with Saladin, for three [...]ears, he ſet ſail for his return, but tempeſtuous weather [...]liged him to land on the coaſt of Italy; where, purſuing [...]s way homeward by land, he was taken priſoner near Vienna, by the duke of Auſtria, and put into the hands of the Emperor, who ungenerouſly detained him on the [...]oſt frivolous pretence.
[38]England had been left in his abſence, under the govern⯑ment of two biſhops, who diſagreed between themſelves, and thus weakened the power of the cleargy. John, the brother of Richard, took now advantage of his confine⯑ment, formented this jealouſy among the cleargy, and put⯑ting himſelf at the head of the barons, encreaſed their authority, by the addition of his own. But the cleargy, faithful to their king, raiſed 300,000 l. among themſelves; with this ranſom procured his enlargement, and he re⯑turned. His brother John, ſued to him for pardon, and was generouſly forgiven.
Richard, was ſome time after engared in a French war, and whilſt he was abroad, an inſurrection took place in London, owing to a new tax which the people diſliked. One William Fitz-Oſborne, a lawyer, commonly called Long-beard, was their ring-leader, but the principal citi⯑zens being called to arms, Long-beard was taken, convict⯑ed, and, with nine of his accomplices, hanged in chains. This was the firſt inſtance of the people's riſing in defence of their liberties, independent of the barons or the clergy.
How long did Richard reign?
At the ſiege of Chaluz, near Limoges, Richard received a wound on the ſhoulder, with an arrow, of which he died, after a turbulent reign of ten years.
The wars now kindled up between England and France, continued to depopulate both countries; and John, the brother and ſucceſſor of Richard, purſued them with unabating vigour.
John mounted the throne, in excluſion to his nephew Arthur, duke of Bretagne, and not contented with this, he wreſted his dukedom from him, alſo took the unfortu⯑nate Arthur priſoner, confined him, and he was never heard of afterwards. John was ſuſpected of putting him to death, and this crime opened the way to his future ruin; he was cited to Paris to anſwer for it, but not at⯑tending, his dominions in France were taken from him and John tamely ſubmitted to it.
Having thus given offence abroad, he ſoon did the ſame at home. He interfered in the election of an arch⯑biſhop of Canterbury, oppoſing the Pope's nomination, [39] [...]ich former kings had not done, and thus drew upon [...]n the reſentment of the clergy. The Pope excommu⯑cated him, forbad his ſubjects longer to obey him, and [...]ve the kingdom of the England to the king or France. [...]ilip, the French king, accepted the gift and prepared to [...]ke poſſeſſion of it; whilſt, on the other hand, John [...]d raiſed army of 60,000 men, and marched to Do⯑ [...]r to oppoſe him. The Pope, however, ſtepped in be⯑ [...]een them, and by his legate or ambaſſador in a confer⯑ [...]ce with John, at Dover, adviſed him to put himſelf un⯑ [...]r his protection, as the only means to ſave himſelf and [...]ngdom from the king of France. John ſwore to perform [...]at the Pope ſhould propoſe, and this was to reſign his [...]ngdom into the Pope's hands, which he accordingly did public in the moſt ſolemn manner.
And was the church by this means abſolutely [...]ſt to him?
No. He held it ſtill, but as a tributary prince [...] the ſee of Rome; that is to ſay, he agreed to pay a cer⯑ [...]in ſum annually for the kingdoms of England and Ire⯑ [...]nd, and to act in all things as the Pope ſhould direct him. [...]e, by this means, ſaved himſelf from an invaſion of the [...]ng of France.
Thus did this king render himſelf contemptible in the [...]es of all the world. He had now only to offend the [...]rons, to render himſelf perfectly obnoxious; and this he [...]d not fail to do. They demanded the re-eſtabliſhment [...] their ancient privileges, and John believed himſelf au⯑ [...]oriſed to reſuſe them, yet demanded their aſſiſtance [...] recover his loſt dominions in France. They refuſing [...]is in their turn, hoſtilities began, a confederacy was [...]rmed, and he found himſelf compelled to ſign that char⯑ [...]r, called Magna charta, by which the Engliſh are ſaid [...] hold their liberties to this day.
This charter was, in fact, giving the barons leave to [...]preſent to the king what they thought grievances, and [...]d he was, in forty days, to give them ſatisfaction, or [...]ey were legally impowered to command it. This was [...] infringement of the royal prerogative, which he com⯑ [...]ied with through fear, but as ſoon as he was at liberty [40]retracted from, and complained to the Pope of the uſur⯑pation of the barons. Upon this the Pope excommunicated them.
You have frequently mentioned excommunica⯑tion. What is this?
A power the Pope formerly claimed of depriv⯑ing a perſon of the benefit of the laws of his country, ex⯑cluding him from the boſom of the church: the eccleſia⯑tical court retains the ſame power now, and denounces it on particular offenders. When the king was excommuni⯑cated, the Pope abſolved his ſubjects from their allegiance, forbad them to obey, and gave away his kingdom to an⯑other.
What the Pope had formerly done, the barons thought proper to do now; they offered the crown of England to France, and Philip accepted it with joy; but, fearing the Pope's diſpleaſure, he prevailed on the Engliſh barons to elect his ſon Louis. In this they agreed, and the city of London lent it's aſſiſtance. Louis landed in England with a large army, in 1216; John was depoſed, and Louis was crowned at London; which ſo affected John's ſpirits that it occaſioned his death the ſame year, in the fifty firſt year of his age, after having reigned ſeventeen years.
Did Louis continue king?
No. Had Louis diſſembled, till firmly ſeat⯑ed on the throne, he might have retained the crown; but the barons wanted a monarch ſubſervient to their power, and Louis refuſed a kingdom upon ſuch conditions. He, of courſe, after a defeat, left England, and Henry III. the ſon of John, then only ten years old, was crowned in his ſtead, and the earl of Pembroke appointed his guar⯑dian.
Things went on pretty well during the regency of the early of pembroke, as he kept up his intereſt with the cler⯑gy, and thus preſerved a ballanced in the ſtate; but, no ſooner was Henry of age and took the reins of govern⯑ment into his own hands, than numberleſs inſurrections and calamities were the reſult of his obſtinacy, his folly and his vice. Infinite were the ſtruggles of power between the barons and the king. Henry's luxury and profuſeneſs [41]continually rendered him a petitioner to the aſſembly of [...]e barons for money, (for ſince the abolition of military [...]rvices, kings aſked money inſtead of ſoldiers,) and they [...] conſtantly demanded a confirmation of their former pri⯑ [...]leges.
He found various methods, however, of raiſing money [...] exaction, but not ſufficient to ſupply his wants; and [...]e barons finding nothing could be done with him, for [...]e ſpace of forty years, at laſt ſhook off their allegiance [...]nd ſent the king notice, that they renounced the fealty [...]ey owed him, and conſidered him only as the common [...]emy of mankind.
Both parties were now in arms; the country became [...]gain the treatre of a civil war, and nothing was thought [...]f but the deciſion of the ſword: a battle enſued, and the [...]ing and his ſon Edward were taken priſoners.
The barons and the clergy now called in the ſanction [...]f the people, in order to new model the conſtitution; [...]nd from this time we may truely date the origin of Eng⯑ [...]iſh liberty. A parliament was ſummoned, in which the [...]ing was obliged to give orders, that four knights from [...]ach country ſhould ſit, in order to repreſent their reſpec⯑ [...]ive ſhires. This is the firſt rude outline of an Engliſh [...]ouſe of commons. The people had been gaining ſome conſequence ſince the diminution of the feudal laws and [...]he eſtabliſhment of corporations, by which men were not [...]o dependent on the men of land and property. As arts [...]ncreaſed the number of corporations increaſed; and they [...]ere now ſo numerous as to be conſulted in the legiſlati⯑on. Had the barons and people, at this time, been una⯑ [...]imous, they might have governed the nation without a monarch; but they diſagreed; another battle enſued. The king's party was victorious, and Henry and his ſon were reſtored. This was in 1265. He lived about ſeven⯑teen years after this, died at the age of ſixty five, and was ſucceeded by his ſon Edward I.
DISCOURSE III. THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
[42]At the death of his father, Edward I. was engaged in the holy war, where he was wounded, and, as it is ſaid, with a poiſoned arrow, and that his queen Eleanor, who was preſent, healed the wound by ſucking out the poiſon with her mouth.
On his return to England, he took poſſeſſion of an un⯑diſputed throne, and being ſatisfied with moderate power, laboured only to be terrible to his enemies; he marched againſt the Welch, and defeated them; killed their king, and annexed it's principality to the crown of England, giving the title of prince of Wales, to his eldeſt ſon.
His next attention was beſtowed on Scotland, where there were two competitors for the throne. Bruce and Baliol. Edward was umpire between them, that is, de⯑termined the difference, and fixed the crown on the head of Baliol, leſs as a king, than as a vaſſal of England. But this bringing on a civil was in that country, Edward marched there, with a numerous army, and had nearly conquered it, intending to unite it with England, but death interrupted his career, in the 69th year of his age, and 35th of his reign.
It is to Edward I. however, that we owe the great power of the people; finding the cleargy and barons were rivals, he ſtudied to weaken their force; for this purpoſe he threw weight into the ſcale of the commons, and law was enacted, that no tax ſhould be levied without their conſent: his deſign was to render himſelf abſolute by their aſſiſtance; but he died and left the people a ſhare of authority, which was given them for very different pur⯑poſed than the promotion of liberty.
He was ſucceeded in 1307, by his fourth ſon, Edward II. By his mal-adminiſtraction, and countenancing ſome favourites in oppoſition to the barons, he brought on a civil war; battles were fought, many noble priſoners ta⯑ken on both ſides, and the ſcaffolds were drenched with [43]Engliſh blood, the leaders of the different parties when [...]en, being inſtantly put to death. Edward's queen was [...]oud, haughty, and revengeful woman, ſiſter to the [...]g of France, and, being faithleſs to her huſband, in⯑ [...]guing with Mortimer, earl of March, the king en⯑ [...]voured to ſecure him. And, on her being ſent over to [...]nce on a negotiation, her paramour went with her; perſwaded her brother to eſpouſe her cauſe, and re⯑ [...]ned with an army, of which Mortimer was at the head, [...]ve the king battle, took him priſoner, depoſed him, [...] her ſon, a youth of fourteen on the throne, hanged her [...]band's favourites, and took upon her the regency du⯑ [...]g her ſon's minority. Nothing now but the death of [...]ward was wanting to complete her guilt; he was ſent [...]m priſon to priſon, the ſport of his mercenary keepers, [...]d ſuffered all the indignities that cruel and ingenious [...]lainy could deviſe, and was at laſt very cruelly mur⯑ [...]red, in Berkeley-caſtle by ruffians, ſuppoſed to be em⯑ [...]yed by her and Mortimer. This was in 1327.
And did the nation ſubmit to this?
They did, and it is a proof in my opinion their puſillanimity; for Edward's greateſt fault was the [...]olence of his friendſhips. Edward III. however his [...], when of age, puniſhed his mother and her friend [...]ortimer, for the murder of his father. Mortimer was [...]agged from the queen's preſence in ſpite of her entrea⯑ [...]es to the contrary, and was hanged, and the queen was [...]nfined for the reſt of her life, which was a ſpace of 25 [...]ears.
Under Edward III. our parliament, the bulwark of [...]r conſtitution was reduced to a better form. A ſpirit [...] liberty breathes in all his laws, but no one knew how [...] make himſelf more abſolute. He began his reign by [...]ducing the Scots to the moſt diſtreſsful ſituation, and, [...]ce more obliged them to acknowledge their dependence [...]n the crown of England: but his attention was ſoon [...]rawn off to objects of greater moment. On the death [...]f Charles, king of France, who left a young wife with [...]hild, there being no apparent heir, the next heir to the [...]rown was to be regent, and this office Edward III. as [44]the grandſon of a king of France, by his mother's fi [...] claimed, in preference to Philip Valois, the next he [...] by the male line. Philip's claims were admitted; and th [...] widowed queen being brought to bed of a daughter, Phi⯑lip was elected king. Edward therefore diſputed th [...] crown, and invaded France with a powerful army.
On Edward's landing, Philip challenged-him to fing [...] combat and Edward accepted it, but ſome obſtacles in⯑tervening the war was proſecuted in the uſual manner [...] many ſkirmiſhes took place which at laſt drew on the de⯑ciſive battle of Creſſy, that every honeſt Engliſhman boaſ [...] of to this hour. Philip was at the head of 100,000 me [...] and Edward only of 30,000, the firſt line of whoſe ar [...] was commanded by Edward's ſon, called the black prince (from his black hair) a youth of fifteen years of age. The valour of this lad filled even veterans with aſtoniſh⯑ment, and to him the ſucceſs of the day was committed. In ſhort, the Engliſh were victorious, 30,000 French were ſlain, and not 100 Engliſh. Edward in his way home took the town of Calais, of which the Engliſh kept poſ⯑ſeſſion 210 years.
Whilſt the English were thus employed abroad, th [...] king of Scots took the opportunity and invaded England The queen in the abſence of her huſband marched at th [...] head of a large army northwards, gave the Scots batth and took their king priſoner.
Philips of France ſoon after dying, was ſucceeded by John, and the war continuing, Edward the black prince at the head of and Engliſh army, defeated the French again at the battle of Poictiers, and took their king priſoner. Thus did Edward ſee two crowned heads his captives i [...] London.
He would have made a fine heroic king?
He never lived to be king, for the died five years before his father, which happened in 1377, in the 65th year of his age, after having reigned 50 years. H [...] ſucceſſor was his grandſon Richard, a minor, eleven year old, the ſon of prince Edward, and the regent was [...] uncle John of Ghent, duke of Lancaſter.
What became of the two captive kings?
They were both ranſomed, that is, releaſed [...]he promiſe of their reſpective countries paying England [...]m of money; but France not making good her pay⯑ [...]ts, John returned to London and died in the Savoy. [...]t this time, in order to aſſiſt Portugal, it was neceſſary [...]aiſe a large ſum of money, and this parliament thought per to do by a pole-tax, that is, each family paying much a head, according to the number it conſiſted.
This was ſo unpalatable to the people that an inſur⯑ [...]tion was the conſequence, headed by one Wat Tyler, [...]w-bred man, and a deſperate one. It began in Eſſex, [...] ſoon ſpread to London. The people burned and pil⯑ [...]ed where ever they came, and when they reached Lon⯑ [...]n, took up their quarters about the city. Richard, [...]n but fifteen years old, riding to Smithfield, invited [...]em to a conference there. Tyler, with his party gave [...]n the meeting on horſeback, and made ſeveral propoſals [...]nded in juſtice, but Tyler during his converſation, lift⯑ [...]g up his ſword in a menacing manner, ſo exaſperated [...]alworth, then mayor of London, who attended the [...]ng, that the ſtruck Tyler down with his mace, and Phil⯑ [...] one of the aldermen riding up, run his ſword through [...] body.—Tyler's party now bent their bows in order to venge the death of their leader, but Richard inſtead of [...]ing, rode up to the rebels, crying out with a reſolute [...]ice, "What my lieges, will you kill your king? Be not concerned for the loſs of your leader, I myſelf will be now your general, follow me into the field and you ſhall have whatever you deſire.?
The rebels immediately deſiſted, and the next day re⯑ [...]ived a charter of freedom, and a general pardon; but [...]eſe only were extorted grants, and ſoon retracted, and [...]e ring-leaders were tried and put to death.
From this noble act of Walworth's, the ſword has been art of the city arms ever ſince.
Did no bad conſequence follow Richard's reach of his word?
Yes. It made the lower claſs of people his [...]nemies; and, at the age of ſeventeen, he offended the parliament through a ſcheme he had laid of rendering [46]himſelſ abſolute. The barons were preſently at the he [...] of 40,000 men, and the king was obliged to ſubmit; [...] making a freſh attempt three years after, it did not [...] ſo well; having found means to bring over the pa [...] ⯑ment to his meaſures, many of the oppoſers loſt their li [...] on the occaſion, and ſome were baniſhed. The peop [...] however were far from ſatisfied, and Richard having a [...] ⯑bitrarily baniſhed his couſin, the duke of Lancaſter's [...] and the duke of Norfolk, for quarrelling, the forme [...] on the death of his father, took the opportunity in 139 [...] whilſt Richard was over in Ireland to quell an inſurrection there, and landed in England; when on ſhore he cal [...] the people to his aſſiſtance; they preſently raiſed an ar [...] of 60,000 men, and became ſo powerful, that Richard [...] his return could make no head againſt them; he w [...] obliged therefore to throw himſelf on the generoſity of his enemy. Richard was dethroned, and the duke Lancafter took the crown as Henry IV.
What became of Richard?
He was ſent a priſoner to the tower, where was ſoon after murdered, by ruffians employed for th [...] purpoſe, but not till after he had ſlain four of his aſſaſſin.
What was Henry's claim to the crown?
He was the grandſon of Edward III. by [...] fourth ſon, John, duke of Lancaſter; whereas, Richard was grandſon of Edward III, by his eldeſt ſon, Edward t [...] black prince; but as there was a deſcendant of the du [...] of York, an older brother than Henry's father, his chi [...] claim was the reſignation of Richard in his favour.
From this ſeizure of the crown by Henry IV. begand th [...] conteſts between the houſes of York and Lancaſter, whi [...] for ſeveral years afterwards deluged the kingdom wit [...] blood, but which in the end contributed to give ſtreng [...] and conſiſtency to the conſtitution.
Henry, during his reign, had to contend with the Sco [...] and the Welch, and various rebellions in favour of the hou [...] of York were ſtirred up againſt him; the former he ha [...] the good fortune to defeat, and the latter to ſuppre [...] The murmurs of the clergy, however, were of greate [...] moment; Wicklifle, who firſt preached the proteſta [...] [47]doctrine in Germany, had publiſhed his opinions, about [...]he end of Edward the third's reign, and the clergy of England were apprehenſive of its' prevailing here; Henry [...]arneſtly, therefore, recommended it to his parliament to prevent it, and an act was paſſed that condemned heretics [...]o the flames. In conſequence of this act the rector of a [...]hurch in England, a follower of Wicklifle was condemn⯑ [...]d to the ſtake and burnt alive; the firſt man in England [...]ho ſuffered death in the cauſe of religion.
On the death of Henry IV. in 1413, his ſon Henry V. who in his juvenile days had led a profligate life, aſſoci⯑ [...]ting with men of very abandoned characters, aſcended [...]he throne. At this barbarous period, learning was little [...]aught after, even biſhops could ſcarcely read or write their names. Courage ſeemed to be regarded as the only virtue, and that, with ſuperſtition, ſtamped the character of heroiſm.
Did Henry the fifth's reign proceed undiſ⯑turbed?
Henry began his reign in attempting to ex⯑tirpate the hereſy of Wicklifle, and Sir John Oldcaſtle, [...]aron of Cobham, the chief protector of this ſect, was condemned to the flames. Such ſteps muſt naturally cre⯑ate not only horror but diſguſt in the people, at the ſeve⯑rities of ſuch a government. Great, at this time, were the domeſtic troubles in France, and Henry thought it no [...]ad opportunity to inſiſt on a reſtitution of Normandy and thoſe provinces that had been taken from England in pre⯑ceding reigns. He, for this purpoſe, invaded France with 50,000 men, but an epidemic diſorder carried off three fourths of his ſoldiers. Reduced now to 9000 men, he was oppoſed by a French army of 150,000: this diſ⯑parity of number, however, did not diſcourage Henry. The two armies met at Agincourt, and the Engliſh, being reſolved either to conquer or die, fell upon the enemy with ſuch impetuoſity, that they ſoon routed them. Hen⯑ry alighted from his horſe and fought at the head of his men, on foot; eighteen french cavaliers reſolving either to kill him or fall in the attempt, ruſhed on him at once, and one of them ſtunned him with the blow of a battle-ax, [48]when two or three Welchmen came to his aſſiſtance, a [...] the eighteen Frenchmen were ſlain. Tois intrepidity [...] their king inſpired the Engliſh troops with new courag [...] and the French were defeated. Henry made a triumph entry into Paris, and receiving the fealty or homage of th [...] French nobility, returned to England to raiſe freſh forced in order to ſubdue the country entirely, depoſe thier king who was a lunatic. and fix the crown on his own head. He went over to France again for that purpoſe, but dea [...] ſtopped him in his carreer, at the age of thirty-four.
Henry VI. and ſon of Henry V. ſucceeded to th [...] throne at the age of nine months, the duke of Bedford his uncle, being appointed regent. It was determined [...] proſecute the French war, and Charles VI. it's lunat [...] king, being dead, and his ſon Charles VII. his next hei [...] diſinherited for the murder of the duke of Burgundy it was reſolved to ſet Henry on the throne of that king⯑dom. He was accordingly proclaimed king of France and the duke of Bedford declared regent of that kingdom whilſt his brother, the duke of Gloceſter, another of th [...] king's uncles, had the government of England. Charle [...] VII. the nominal king of France, whenever he attempte [...] to face his enemy, was overthrown, and nothing could have helped him, but almoſt a miracle.
To bring about by art what force could not atchieve, [...] French gentleman fixed upon the ſervant maid of an inn [...] a woman of maſculine ſtrength and courage, (pretendin [...] to be but eighteen, when, in reality, ſhe was twent [...] ſeven years of age,) and inſtructed her in the duties of [...] warrior and propheteſs. This was Joan of Arc, the re [...] ⯑nowned maid of Orleans. She equipped herſelf in the habit and arms of a man, and gave out that ſhe was inſpi [...] ⯑ed. She was examined by the univerſity, and they, eithe [...] deceived or willing to be ſo, affirmed, that, that be commiſſion came from heaven.
The Engliſh were, at that time, beſieging the city [...] Orleans, Charles VIIth's laſt reſource, and were upo [...] the point of becoming maſters of it, when Joan undertoo [...] to relieve it. She addreſſed the ſoldiers as a meſſeng [...] from heaven, aſſured them Providence would fight f [...] [49]them; headed the army, routed the Engliſh wherever [...] oppoſed, prophecied that Charles VII. ſhould reco⯑ [...] his crown; and as ſhe foretold, it came to paſs, and aſſiſted at his coronation. This chain of ſucceſſes en⯑ [...]ly turned the ſcale in favour of the French, and the [...]gliſh loſt the kingdom wholly.
Was Joan of Arc rewarded equal to her de⯑ [...]s?
In the midſt of the French king's good for⯑ [...]e, ſhe was taken priſoner by the Engliſh, proſecuted them for ſorcery, and condemned and publickly burnt [...] witch.
The loſs of France was a diſtreſſing calamity to the [...]gliſh, and at this period, the duke of York aſſerted his [...]im to the Engliſh crown. He was a nobleman deſcend⯑ [...] by the mother's ſide, from Lionel, one of the ſons of ward III. but older than John, duke of Lancaſter, [...]m whom Henry III. was deſcended; of courſe had a or claim. The enſign or banner of the duke was a [...]ite roſe, that of Henry a red one. This gave names the two houſes, whoſe contentions were about to drench [...] kingdom with ſlaughter.
The queen, who was a princeſs of Sicily, and an enter⯑ [...]zing woman, had the management of affairs, and go⯑ [...]ned every thing with an unlimited authority. The [...] of Suffolk was her favourite, and an avowed enemy the houſe of York, but being impeached in parliament [...] baniſhed; and on his paſſage to France was beheaded board the veſſel, by a common ſailor. The death of [...] man ſet the duke of York more at his eaſe.
Among the inſurrectioins of these times, was that in [...], led on by Jack Cade, a man of low condition, at head of 20,000 Kentiſh men, who marched to London [...] ſent to court a liſt of grievances, but which was ſup⯑ [...]ſed by his being taken and put to death. Though [...] rebel met ſuch a fate. his chief object was to favour cauſe of the duke of York, who aſpired to the crown. [...] quiet, however, this powerful man, the duke of So⯑ [...]ſet, protector, was ſent to the tower, and the duke of [...]k appointed in his ſtead; but the king, then twenty [50]three years of age, not chuſing to be any longer under controul, depoſed the duke from his power, and had re [...] courſe to arms; being taken, however, priſoner, at th [...] battle of St. Alban's, the duke of York was again re-inſtat⯑ed in his protectorate. Henry was ſoon after releaſed but being ill, the queen took arms in his defence, a [...] ⯑led his forces on, to oppoſe the duke's army headed by the earl of Warwick; him ſhe gave battle to, the king look⯑ing on, a tame ſpectator, and had the misfortune to b [...] worſted, and her huſband taken priſoner a ſecond time.
The duke how openly clained the crown; the matt [...] was debated in parliament, and it was determined th [...] Henry ſhould poſſeſs the throne for life, and ſhould b [...] ſucceeded by the duke, in excluſion of the prince of Wale [...] Henry's ſon.
All except the queen agreed to this, but ſhe, a woma [...] of ſpirit and pride, flew to Wales, animated her o [...] friends, acquired new ones, and raiſed an army to defe [...] her cauſe. She and her old enemy the duke of York met at Wakefield, victory was on her ſide, and the du [...] and his ſecond ſon were ſlain. The queen now marche [...] to London, in order to ſet the king at liberty, gave batt [...] to the earl of Warwick, defeated him, and releaſed him but the city of London exaſperated at his conduct of th [...] queen's, elected the duke of York's ſon king, by [...] name of Edward IV. The queen on this, collected great army in the North, to the number of 60,000, [...] the earl of Warwick, accompanied by young king E [...] ⯑ward, oppoſed her with 40,000 men. Never was En [...] ⯑gland depopulated by ſo dreadful a day. Warwi [...] gained a complete victory, but 40,000 men fell a ſacrif [...] in the conteſt. Edward IV, was eſtabliſhed on the thro [...] and the queen fled, with her huſband, to Scotland for p [...] ⯑tection.
Wretched as this reign was, yet the art of print [...] was introduced in it, through which, the age grew m [...] and more enlightened. Learning at this period was [...] known among the common claſs of men, but by no me [...] neglected by the clergy.
Did the queen ſet down quietly under this [...]efeat?
No. Nothing was able to abate her perſe⯑ [...]erance. She entered England again with her huſband, [...]nd five thouſand men, granted her by the French king; [...]ave her enemy battle and was again defeated, when [...]enry was taken priſoner, and conducted to the tower. The queen however eſcaped, and retired to her father in [...]icily.
The earl of Warwick, who had ſeated Edward on the [...]rone, propoſed his marrying a foreign princeſs, and [...]dward refuſing, it ſo enraged the earl, that he became [...]is enemy, and determined to ſet his brother Clarence on [...]e throne, who had married the earl's daughter. To [...]ring about this purpoſe, he invited Edward to his houſe, [...]d there treacherouſly made him a priſoner, but eſcaping [...]on afterwards, the citizens of London declared in his [...]vour, and he was preſently at the head of a numerous [...]my.—Warwick fled to France, was reconciled to Henry's [...]een, and in conjunction with her, returned with a num⯑ [...]er of French forces; oppoſed Edward with 60,000 men, [...]feated him, and Edward in his turn, was obliged to fly [...] Holland. Warwick advanced to London, ſet Henry [...]ce more at liberty and placed him on the throne. [...]ence Warwick was called a king-maker. A parliament [...]as ſummoned and Henry's rights confirmed.
What became of Edward?
Edward, though an exile in Holland had [...]ny partizans at home; after therefore an abſence of [...]e months, he returned to England under a pretence of [...]iming the dukedom of York; when here, he uſurped [...]ngly authority, made Henry a priſoner again, and ſoon [...]ſing an army in his intereſt, gave Warwick battle at [...]rnet and there defeated and killed him.
The queen ſtill made head againſt him, accompanied [...]th her ſon, the prince of Wales, but ſhe was again de⯑ [...]ted by Edward, and the prince was taken priſoner. [...]t he did not long ſurvive, for the ſpirited boy being [...]ought before his victor, and aſſerting his right, the bar⯑ [...]rous monarch ſtruck him with his gauntlet, and inſtantly [52]the kings brothers, viz. the dukes of Gloceſter and Cla⯑rence ruſhed on him with their daggers and deſtroyed him. To complete the tragedy, Gloceſter, (afterwards Richard III.) entered king Henry's chamber alone and mundered him in cold blood.
What became of the queen?
She alſo was taken priſoner, but Louis XI. king of France, paid the king of England 50,000 crowns for her freedom, and ſhe died a few years after in privacy in France.
Edward being now ſettled on the throne, wreaked his vengeance on all the Lancaſtrian party, putting all to death, whereever he could find them. But the great object of his vengeance was Henry, earl of Richmond, (afterwards Henry VII.)
Who was this nobleman?
He was the great grandſon of the earl of Somerſet, who was the eldeſt ſon of John, duke of Lan⯑caſter, by his laſt wife, whereas, Henry IV, the grand⯑father of Henry VI, was the duke of Lancaſter's ſon, by a former wife.
But who was the earl of Richmond's father?
One Edmund Tudor, a Welch gentleman, who married a grand-daughter of the earl of Somerſet, I have mentioned; of courſe, he was fifth couſin to Ed⯑ward IV. He lived in France to ſecure himſelf from Edward's cruelty.
Edward had two brother, the dukes of Gloceſter and Clarence; Clarence had aſſiſted him in obtaining the crown, but being treated afterwards with indifference, and reproaching his brother for it, the king unmindful of the ties of kindred, or of gratitude, had him arraigned, condemned and put to death. He was drowned in a butt of malmſey wine, a death of Clarence's own chooſing.
The reſt of Edward's life was ſpent in riot and de⯑bauchery. He was going to war with France, but died before it took place. Edward was handſome and brave, but mentally deformed with every vice.
His reign was ſurely a horrid one?
Horrid as it was, you muſt prepare for events in the next, ſtill more ſo.
Edward left two ſons, the eldeſt of whom, a boy be⯑tween twelve and thirteen, was proclaimed king, in 1483, and his mother, who, lately raiſed among the nobility, wiſhed to hide her want of rank among a new promotion, was for having a number of peers created. This gave offence to the old nobility, and Richard, duke of Gloceſ⯑ter, the king's uncle, who was of a tyrannical diſpoſition, fomented their diſcontents. Having ſhewn the danger of [...]etting the queen have the government in her hands, he procured himſelf to be choſen protector of the realm, and thus got poſſeſſion of the young king and his brother the duke of York, a child about ſeven years of age; whom [...]nder a pretence of providing for their ſafety, he ſent priſoners to the tower.
How was the queen reconciled to this?
She could not prevent it. She had with the princes taken ſanctuary in Weſtminſter-abbey; but, on [...]he duke of Gloceſter's promiſing to be a father to her children, ſhe was induced to part with them, though with [...]eluctance.
Gloceſter had no ſooner ſecured their perſons, but he [...]aſterdized them by act of parliament, and, by pretended [...]bſtacles, put off the young king's coronation. Lord Haſtings, Lord Stanley, and ſome other of the nobility, [...]oreſaw the protector's deſign upon the crown, and form⯑ [...]d plans to prevent it. But Gloceſter being aware of it, [...]alled a council at the Tower, and when Haſtings and [...]tanley were there, charged Haſtings with high treaſon, [...]nd had him immediately beheaded; a blow was levelled [...]t Stanley's life, but he eſcaped under a table. Some [...]thers fell a ſacrifice at this time to the protector's reſent⯑ [...]ent. The duke of Buckingham, who was in Richard's [...]ntereſt, ſtirred up the people in his favour, and prevail⯑ [...]d on the city of London to offer him the crown; which [...]e ſeemed, at firſt, unwilling to accept, but was at length [...]revailed on, from an idea, that his brother's children [...]ere baſtards, and of courſe not entitled to inherit, [54]and, that was the young king to be crowned, the kingdom would not be ſafe in his hands.
Richard was accordingly crowned. and his next ſte [...] was to make away with his two nephews, then in th [...] Tower. To effect this, he gave ſecret orders, as it i [...] ſaid, to one Tyrell, to put them to death, (which wa [...] done by ſmothering them between two pillows,) and bur [...] their bodies under the ſtair-caſe.
Did this Tyrell eſcape unpuniſhed for hi [...] crime?
No. Vengeance, though late, followed hi [...] and he was executed for it in the ſucceeding reign; whe [...] he confeſſed the whole.
Thus did Richard wade through every obſtacle to th [...] throne, but he did not enjoy it long. His friend, th [...] duke of Buckingham, not having been rewarded according to his expectations, conſpired againſt him and declare [...] for Henry, duke of Richmond, whom I have alread [...] mentioned.
In what ſituation was this gentleman?
He was, at this time, an exile in Bretagn [...] and had the good fortune to ſurvive the numerous maſſ [...] ⯑cres of the preceding reigns. He was once delivered up [...] the ambaſſadors of Edward IV. and was juſt on the poin [...] of being brought back to England, where he would cer⯑tainly have been put to death; but the duke of Bretag [...] repented of the act, and took him from the ambaſſador juſt as he was brought on ſhip-board. Henry was th [...] only remaining branch of the houſe of Lancaſter, and [...] was the perſon whom the duke of Buckingham pitch [...] upon to dethrone the tyrant Richard.
How old was Henry?
Quite a young man, not more than twent [...] ſeven. He promiſed, in caſe he ſucceeded to the thron [...] to marry the daughter of Edward IV. the only ſurvivi [...] heir of that family; and Richard having rendered hi [...] ſelf exceedingly unpopular, the people were in gene [...] againſt him. Henry was therefore encouraged to inva [...] England, which he did, at the head of about 2000 foreign [55] [...]ops, and was joined when here by about 7000 Engliſh [...]d Welch.
Did not the duke of Buckingham join him?
He headed a party of Welch Henry's fa⯑ [...]our, but being deſerted by his followers, was obliged to [...]crete himſelf in the houſe of one who had originally been [...]s ſervant, and to whom he had been very kind; yet this [...]rvaat gave him up for a reward, and he was beheaded [...]en without a trial.
Did not this diſcourage Henry?
Not at all. It was rather a ſpur to his en⯑ [...]rprize. He gave Richard, then at the head of 15000 [...]en, battle at Boſworth-field, where he had the good [...]ortune to ſlay him, but not before Richard had diſplayed [...]me very aſtoniſhing acts of perſonal valour.
Richard's crown being found by one of the ſoldiers, was [...]mmediately placed on the head of the conqueror, by [...]at very Lord Stanley, whom Richard had endeavoured [...] deſtroy at the council in the tower. Thus, in the death of Richard, ended the race of the Plantagenet kings, which [...]ad been in poſſeſſion of the crown for three hundred and thirty years; and in him, alſo, ended the conteſt between the houſes of York and Lancaſter, which had for thirty [...]ears been a ſcourge to the kingdom, and in which above [...] hundred thouſand men loſt their lives, either by battle [...]r the ſcaffold.
Had Richard no family?
None. He married the widow of the young [...]rince of Wales, Henry VIth's ſon, whom he had mur⯑ [...]ered; but ſhe felt the conſequences of her ingratitude to [...]er former huſband, in the inhumanity of Richard, for he [...]reated her ſo ill, that ſhe broke her heart, as he wiſhed; [...]is view being to marry his niece, the daughter of Edward IV. but ſhe deteſted the propoſal and would not think of it.
From the acceſſion of Henry VII. to the throne of this country, the whole government ſeems to have put on a [...]ew form. If he was not the greateſt prince, he was by far the moſt uſeful one that ever reigned. A nation of tu⯑mult was reduced through him to a civil ſubordination; [56]an inſolent and factious ariſtocracy was humbled; wiſe laws were enacted, commerce reſtored, and peace and happineſs introduced to a people little better than in a ſtate of barbariſm for thirteen hundred years before.
Henry's firſt care was to marry the princeſs Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. thus uniting the intereſts of the houſes of Lancaſter and York. He has been accuſed of avarice, but perhaps unjuſtly ſo. Before his reign, it was uſual, for high treaſon, to take away the life of the aggreſſ⯑or and give away his fortune to ſome court favourite. This, Henry perceived had two bad effects, it excited re⯑ſentment by it's cruelty, and made a favourite too power⯑ful for ſubjection; to avoid this he deprived ſuch as were taken in arms of their property, and reſerved it for the uſe of the crown. He was a great economiſt, which en⯑abled him not only to be uſeful to the poor, but juſt to his own creditors.
Immediately after his marriage, he iſſued out a general pardon to all who would accept of it, but thoſe who flew to arms were quelled, and ſome of the ring-leaders exe⯑cuted.
Sagacious however as Henry was, he was jealous of his power, and though the earl of Warwick, a ſon of the duke of Clarence, Edward the IVth's brother, was only a boy, and nothing alledged againſt him, ſtill as he was related to the houſe of York, he ſhut him up a cloſe priſoner in the tower. This youth was however made an inſtru⯑ment to deceive the people. A prieſt of Oxford, had trained up one Lambert Simnel, a baker's ſon, to coun⯑terfeit the perſon of this earl, and having prepared him for his purpoſe, he ſat out for Ireland, and there opened the ſcene. The plot unfolded to his wiſh, Simnel was re⯑ceived and proclaimed king, and was conducted by the people and officers of ſtate, with great pomp to the caſtle.
What could have induced this prieſt to play off this trick?
It was a ſcheme of the queen dowager's to diſpoſſeſs Henry of the crown; for which, ſhe was con⯑fined in a monaſtery, where ſhe remained many year till ſhe died. To get rid however of this impoſture, Henry [57] [...]rdered the earl of Warwick, who was ſtill a priſoner in the tower, to be led publickly through the ſtreets of Lon⯑don, to convince the people of the deception. But this did not anſwer the purpoſe; Simnel being joined by ſome of the diſcontented party came over to England, and marched to York. The people here did not join him, and the king giving him battle, Simnel's party was de⯑ [...]eated, and he himſelf taken priſoner. Henry had too [...]uch greatneſs of mind, to put him to death, but ap⯑pointed him to a mean office in his ſervice, in which poſt [...]e died. As for the prieſt his inſtructor, he was made a priſoner for life.
All things being thus adjuſted, Henry, laid a deſign of recovering his French dominions, by an attack upon France, and the parliament furniſhed him with ſupplies for that purpoſe; but, when the money came to be col⯑lected, it occaſioned a new inſurrection, and the earl of Northumberland, in attempting to enforce obedience to [...]he laws, was killed by the mob in Yorkſhire. The mu⯑tineers did not ſtop here, but, by the advice of one John⯑ [...]-Chambre, marched towards London, to give the king battle; and the conſequence was a defeat and the death of their ring-leader, who was executed upon the occaſion.
Scarce was this matter ended, but the old ducheſs of Burgundy, ſiſter to Edward IV. ſet on foot another im⯑poſtor. She firſt ſpread a report that the duke of York, Edward IVth's ſecond ſon, was not murdered in the tow⯑er, as was ſaid, but was ſtill alive; and then pitched upon a genteel young man, the ſon of a Flemiſh Jew, to perſonate him. At the deſire of the ducheſs, the king of France received him, but afterwards at Henry's re⯑queſt diſcountenanced him.
Henry took ſome pains to ſhew the people the fallacy of this, by proving that the duke of York was dead, and puniſhing his murderers, and by tracing the impoſtor, whoſe name was Perkin Warbeck, to his original obſcu⯑rity; but ſo determined was the king's enemies to diſ⯑poſſeſs him of the crown, that nothing could interrupt their deſign. Warbeck landed in Kent, but was ſoon driven off again by the inhabitants. He went from thence [58]to Ireland, and next to Scotland, where James IV. ki [...] of that country received him, acknowledged his prete [...] ⯑ſions, and gave him in marriage one of his kinſwomen a daughter of the earl of Huntley, and, by marching a army into England, made another attempt to ſet him o [...] the throne. James however not finding the country [...] in his cauſe, retired into Scotland, and obliged Perkin [...] ſeek for a new protector.
He muſt have played his part very well, obtain ſuch countenance?
If he was not the duke of York, he certain was very well inſtructed; but there are hiſtorians w [...] ſay, that he and his brother Edward V. were clandeſtine ſent abroad, that Edward V. died, but that his brother ſurvived, and was the ſame who was afterwards known [...] the name of Perkin Warbeck. However, be this as [...] will, he had been acknowledged in France, Flanders, Ir [...] ⯑land and Scotland, as lawful heir to the Britiſh crow [...] and had made ſome bold attempt, to ſecond his preten⯑ſions. There was at this time alſo an inſurrection Cornwall, under one Flammoc, a lawyer, in oppoſition to ſome taxes that were levying by act of parliament, and as every inſurrection now was followed with a project dethroning the king, the inſurgents marched to London and encamped at Black-heath, where the king's for [...] ſurrounded and defeated them. Some of the ring-leader were executed, and the reſt were permitted to retu [...] home. Theſe men on their return, ſent for Perkin Warbeck, then in Ireland, to head them; he accepted the invitation, landed in the weſt, took the title of Richa [...] IV. and, with a body of 3000 men, attempted to ſto [...] the city of Exeter, but without ſucceſs. The ki [...] marched againſt him, Perkins loſing all his courag [...] fled and took ſanctuary in the monaſtery of Bewdle [...] ▪ Soon after, on the promiſe of a pardon, he ſurrende [...] himſelf and was ſent priſoner to the tower; where, concert with the earl of Warwick, plotting againſt Henry and being convicted of a degſin to eſcape, by killing t [...] keeper of the tower, they were in the year 1499, both p [...] to death.
[59]This ſame year Henry's eldeſt ſon Arthur, was married [...]o the princeſs Catharine of Arrragon, the daughter of the [...]ing of Spain, and he dying ſoon after, ſuch was Henry's unwillingneſs to pay back her marriage-portion, as by agreement, that he conſented to her being married again [...]o his ſecond ſon, afterwards Henry VIII on pretence, that the firſt match had not been conſummated.
His eldeſt daughter Margaret, was ſoon after married [...]o James IV. of Scotland, through whom, the kings of Scotland became poſſeſſed of the throne of England, and, [...]rough whom our preſent king George IIId's deſcent is raced from Henry VII.
I wiſh you would explain this to me?
For the preſent, let it ſuffice to ſay, that on the death of queen Elizabeth, the grand-daughter of Henry VII. her couſin James VI. of Scotland, the great-grand- [...]on of James IV. and Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. became king of England. I will ſhew you from whom [...]ur preſent king is deſcended, when I come to ſpeak of the reign of this James VI. who was James I. of England.
Why did you ſo extol the character of Henry?
Becauſe he was fond of peace, and ſeemed to [...]ave the intereſt of his people at heart. He had no am⯑ [...]ition to extend his power, except by treaties and by wiſ⯑dom; and his great plan was, to equalize the people, by [...]epreſſing the nobility and clergy and giving the popu⯑ [...]ace more weight in the ſcale of government; but, his greateſt efforts were to promote trade and commerce. He [...]ied at the age of fifty-two, having reigned twenty-three years.
In Henry VIII. his ſon and ſucceſſor, all factions were [...]xtinguiſhed, and all diviſions united. By the father's [...]de he claimed the crown, from the houſe of Lancaſter; by the mother's from the houſe of York: and his father [...]eft him a kingdom in peace, prudent miniſters, and a full treaſury.
I preſume then, his reign was a happy one?
Far from it. The advantages he had, he [...]wed not to himſelf, but either to nature, fortune, or his [...]ather. Though well educated, Henry wanted wiſdom and [60]virtue, ſo, that he did not turn the bleſſings he enjoyed to advantage. If ever there was a tyrant, he was one.
What acts of tyranny was he guilty of?
The firſt act of injuſtice which marked hi [...] reign, was the proſecution and execution of Empſon an [...] Dudley, two judges, whom his father had appointed t [...] enquire into caſes of treaſon, and levy fines in proportio [...] to the offence. Their conduct was examined, and a nothing capital could be brought againſt them, they ſuffer⯑ed death upon a falſe accuſation.
He next aimed at the crown of France, but at the loſs of a very conſiderable treaſure. He was the dupe of the emperor Maximilian, the pooreſt prince in Europe, and gave himſelf up to the guidance of Cardinal Wolſey.
Who was this Wolſey?
He was the ſon of a private gentleman was brought up to the church, and roſe by degrees to be employed as an ambaſſador to Henry VII. When Henry VIII. came to the crown, he was dean of Lin⯑coln, but becoming a favourite with the king, and ad⯑miſtering to him in all his pleaſures and amours, he w [...] made a privy counſellor, lord chancellor, archbiſhop [...] York, biſhop of Durham, prime miniſter, and through Henry's intereſt, a cardinal and legate to the Pope. In ſhort, he was grown ſo powerful, that the nobility were jealous, and the duke of Buckingham, ſon of him wh [...] loſt his life in the reign of Richard III. labouring to oppo [...] him, was charged by Wolſey with high-treaſon, and th [...] fell a ſacrifice to his reſentment.
But this man I underſtand fell at laſt himſelf.
He did; and I will ſhew you by and by, b [...] what means, but prior to this, I muſt inform you, that, a [...] in the laſt reign the miſeries of the people, chiefly aroſ [...] from the licentiouſneſs of the nobility; in this they pro⯑ceeded from the uſurpations of the king; yet, during th [...] whole reign there was no rebellion, not from the people love for their ſovereign, but from fear of non-ſucceſ [...] Henry VIIth's prudence having made ſuch meaſure doubtful.
Had not this king many wives?
No leſs than ſix. His firſt wife was his bro⯑ther's widow, whom he afterwards divorced, and two of his [...]eens he put to death, on charges of adultery.
Who were theſe two?
Anne Bulleyn and Catharine Howard.— [...]enry was loſt as it were in the embraces of his miſtreſſes, ever attended to the complaints of his people; and Wol⯑ [...]y, who had the ſole adminiſtration of affairs, purſued very meaſure to keep him ignorant, in order to increaſe [...]s own authority. But an event took place in this reign, [...]at put an end to Wolſey's exorbitant power.
What was this?
That which is know in hiſtory by the name [...] the Reformation.
Shall I trouble you to explain it to me?
Till the reign of Henry VIIIth, the Roman [...]tholic doctrine was the religion of this country, and pro⯑ [...]bly would have continued longer ſo, had not Henry [...]und the Pope's power inconvenient to him; for though [...]e proteſtant faith had been preached by Luther, in [...]ermany, and ſeemed to gain ground in that country, [...]t Henry took up the pen in oppoſition to it, and de⯑ [...]nded the errors of the church of Rome, to the utmoſt [...] his abilities; for which work the Pope honoured him [...]th the title of Defender of the faith, an appellation con⯑ [...]nued by our kings to the preſent day. But no ſooner [...]d Henry find the Pope averſe to his divorcing his firſt [...]fe, who was the widow of his brother, not being able [...] bring Anne Bulleyn to his wiſhes without marrying her, [...]an he thought proper to queſtion the Pope's power, and [...]olſey, taking part with the pontiff, drew on him Henry's [...]imoſity. This led the way to the reformation. He de⯑ [...]rmined to throw off the Pope's yoke, and the parlia⯑ [...]ent co-operating with him, a change of faith took place, [...]nd the religion of this country was altered. This event [...]as in 1534.
Why was the reformed religion called the [...]roteſtant?
Becauſe at the diet or aſſembly of the German [...]tes at Spires, in 1530; ſeveral proteſted againſt a decree [62]of the diet, to ſupport the doctrines of the church [...] Rome.
I preſume it was this oppoſition of Wolſe [...] to the king's will, that occaſioned his downfall?
It was. Henry degraded him from his office [...] confined him to his country houſe,, and deprived him [...] the greateſt part of his property.
Could Henry do this, of his own accord?
It was done indeed under the ſanction of la [...]. He was charged with introducing bulls from Rome, with out the king's conſent; was tried, found guilty, and th [...] parliament confirming the ſentence of the courts, he wa [...] ſent an exile to his country ſeat. Soon after, he was [...] reſted by the king's orders, and died in his way to Lon⯑don, not without the ſuſpicion of his having poiſon [...] himſelf.
What are thoſe bulls you mentioned?
Decrees of the court of Rome ſo calle [...] from bulla, the ſeal hanging to them.
What was Henry's general character?
That of a cruel tyrant. Some ſovereig [...] have been tyrants from contradiction and revolt; ſo [...] from being miſled by favourites, and ſome from a ſpirt [...] party; but Henry was cruel from diſpoſition alone; cr [...] in his government; cruel in religion, putting many [...] death on account of it, and cruel in his family; yet, t [...] ⯑rant as he was, he died peaceably a natural death; whi [...] Henry VI. the moſt harmleſs of all monarchs, was de [...] throned, impriſoned, an aſſaſſinated. It is folly to ſa [...] that good or bad actions are their own recompences he [...]. The wicked have their good things in this life; the vi [...] ⯑tuous muſt look for them in another.
Was the proteſtant religion perfectly [...] ⯑delled during the reign of this prince?
No; the alterations in Henry's reign w [...] rather ſeparations from the Pope, than a reformation [...] religious abuſes. In the reign of his ſon, Edward VI. [...] errors of Rome became truly reformed. This prince [...] but nine years old when he came to the crown, and th [...] in 1546. His uncle, the duke of Somerſet, was ma [...] [63]protector, and the whole adminiſtration devolved on him [...]d his council. He was an amiable man, and all the [...]tions of his life were directed by motives of religion [...]d honour. This nobleman, in conjunction with Cran⯑ [...]er, archbiſhop of Canterbury, undertook to make a [...]al reformation in religion, when Henry VIII. only pre⯑ [...]nded to do it.
Did the Roman catholics in general, ſubmit this reform?
Far from it. There were inſurrections in [...]rious parts of England; but the protector, who was a [...]iend to the populace, did every thing to redreſs their [...]omplaints, and thus ſtopped their fury for a while. He was however obliged, at laſt, to have recourſe to violence, [...]nd the commotions were quelled. The nobility however [...]ok part againſt him; accuſed the duke of high-treaſon: [...]e was convicted, condemned and loſt his head, in 1550.
How did the young king act in this affair?
He was too young to enter into it; of courſe as paſſive. He did not, however, long ſurvive it, for [...]e died in 1553.
Who ſucceeded him?
It was a cuſtom with monarchs, in this age, [...] leave the crown by will. Henry VIII. in conformity [...] this practice, bequeathed the throne firſt to Edward, [...]s ſon by his third wife, next to Mary, his daughter by [...]s firſt wife, and after her, in caſe they had no iſſue, to [...]lizabeth, his daughter by his ſecond wife. Theſe daugh⯑ [...]rs having been deemed illegitimate by parliament, gave [...]caſion to other perſons claiming the crown, as I will, [...]y and by ſhew you.
Did Edward VI. make a will?
Yes, and left the crown to Lady Jane Grey, [...] girl of ſixteen, daughter of his aunt, ſhe being next in [...]cceſſion, admitting that his ſiſters, Mary and Elizabeth, [...]ere ſet aſide for illegitimacy. She accordingly claimed [...]e crown, and had a party to ſupport her; but the peo⯑ple in general being in favour of Mary, Lady Jane Grey's [...]rty was overpowered, and ſhe and her huſband were [...]eheaded.
Was the nation much indebted to Mary?
Mary, now ſettled on the throne, proceeded [...] like a female fury, to re-eſabliſh popery throughout th [...] kingdom, and again involved the nation in bloodſhed.
Was not Mary a great bigot?
Very much ſo, and her huſhand, the king [...] Spain, was not leſs remarkable for his attachment to po⯑pery. During her reign many proteſtant biſhops, (among whom was Cranmer) and others were burnt, becauſe they would not deny their faith.
Did Mary proceed in this ſpirit of perfec⯑tion from motives of virtue?
It is allowed ſhe did. Her father Henry VIII. was a tyrant from vicious principles, but the ene⯑mies of Mary admit ſhe was one from virtuous principles. She had impriſoned her ſiſter Elizabeth, from a fear th [...] ſhe would take part againſt her, Elizabeth being in he [...] heart a proteſtant; and nothing but Mary's death in 1558, prevented that of her ſiſter's.
Did ſhe mean then to take away her life?
It was not abſolutely ſo declared, but it wa [...] univerſally thought that Mary waited only for ſome fa⯑vourable pretext to do it.
Elizabeth now aſcended the throne amid the acclimati⯑ons of the people. During her confinement ſhe cultivate [...] her mind and learned the different languages and ſciences and commenced her reign with the re-eſtabliſhment [...] proteſtantiſm; and it is to the meaſures ſhe purſued and the plans ſhe fell upon, that this country owe the bleſſing [...] of the preſent eſtabliſhed church. But whilſt ſhe was th [...] ſecuring peace at home, the neighbouring nations, France, Scotland, Spain and the Pope, were all combined again [...] her.
Was not her title to the crown diſputed?
Yes, by her couſin Mary, queen of France and Scotland, and this lady's cauſe was ſupported by the popiſh faction: but it ended in the fall of Mary, for when her huſband, the king of France, died, ſhe came over to England, where, by a breach of hoſpitality, Eli⯑zabeth [65]ſeized her perſon, kept her confined eighteen years [...]d then brought her to a ſham trial and cut off her head.
Did the neighbouring nations diſturb the [...]ign of this queen?
Very little. Elizabeth had a great deal of [...]t and cunning, and contrived, by ſomenting diſputes [...]on the continent and ſetting the ſtates there at variance [...]ong each other, to divert their attention in a great mea⯑ [...]re from this kingdom. Her brother-in-law, Philip II. [...]ng of Spain, who would have married her on the death [...] her ſiſter, ſent a large fleet to invade this country, but [...] the ſkill and courage of the admirals and the favour of [...]ovidence, this fleet, called the Spaniſh armada, was [...]eſtroyed. The Spaniards are ſaid to have loſt 81 ſhips of [...]ar and 13,500 men.
Such a blow could not be owing to an en⯑ [...]gement?
Not wholly ſo; they ſuffered much before our [...]ns, but more by a ſtorm; for the ſeas and a tempeſt [...]iſhed the deſtruction a which the Engliſh arms begun.
How long did Elizabeth reign?
Forty five years; ſhe died in 1603, in the [...]ventieth year of her age, but not before the people were [...]ed of her: this is evident from the general joy teſtified [...] all ranks at the acceſſion of her ſucceſſor, James VI. [...] Scotland, ſon of that Mary ſhe had put to death.
What relation was James to Elizabeth?
Third couſin. James was the ſon of Mary, [...]d Mary was the grand-daughter of Elizabeth's aunt, [...]e ſiſter of Henry VIII. Thus were the two countries of England and Scotland united under one monarch.
King James came to the throne with the univerſal appro⯑ [...]ation of all orders of the ſtate, for in his perſon was unit⯑ [...] every claim to the crown, that either deſcent, bequeſt, [...] parliamentary ſanction could confer.
Did James in no wiſe reſent the putting his other to death?
He made an attempt to invade England with [...] army, but policy ſoon induced him to drop it, England [...]ing too powerful at that time. However, when he came [66]to the throne, he would not wear mourning for Elizabeth nor ſuffer any one to appear acourt in black.
James began his reign by labouring to unite both king⯑doms into one, but the jealouſy of the Engliſh put a ſt [...] to it for the preſent, leſt the offices in the Engliſh co [...] and government ſhould be diſpoſed of to Scotchmen.
Were not the kings of Scotland more d [...] ⯑potic than the kings of England?
Yes; and James wiſhed to govern his Eng⯑liſh ſubjects in the ſame way he did his Scotch ones, whi [...] occaſioned numberleſs diſputes between the king and [...] parliament. He was for raiſing money occaſionally wit [...] out the conſent of parliament, which the parliament [...] ways oppoſed; and this matter being carried to grea [...] lengths by this ſon in the next reign, coſt Charles I. [...] life, as I ſhall have occaſion to explain to you hereafter.
Was there not a plot laid in this reign, [...] blow up the parliament with gun-powder?
There was. It was a plot of the Roman [...] ⯑tholics, to deſtroy the king and parliament at one ſtro [...] having been refuſed ſome indulgencies they requeſts▪ For this purpoſe they contrived to ſtow many barrels gun-powder in the cellars under the parliament-ho [...] which they meant to ſet fire to, when the king and parlia⯑ment were aſſembled. For this deed of deſperation number of perſons united, and how horrid ſoever the co [...] ⯑trivance, every member ſeemed faithful and ſecret in [...] league; every thing was prepared to their wiſhes, and [...] conſpirators expected the day with impatience. A [...] morſe, however, of private friendſhip, ſaved the kingdo [...] when all the ties, divine and human, were too weak [...] do it. One of the conſpirators, deſirous of ſaving [...] life of an intimate friend, cautioned him, ten days bef [...] the meeting, not to attend the houſe, and ſent him a my [...] ⯑terious letter for this purpoſe. The letter was no foo [...] received than the contents of it were communicated to [...] ſecretary of ſtate, and the king was the firſt perſon [...] unravelled it's meaning. Accordingly the cellars we examined the night before the meeting of parliament, a [...] [67] [...] whole plot was diſcovered. The ringleaders were [...]n after diſcovered and put to death.
Is it not from a daughter of James I. that [...] preſent royal family ſprung?
It is. This daughter was married to the [...]ctor palatine, who ſoon after became king of Bohe⯑mia. And this lady was the mother of the princeſs So⯑ [...]ia, mother of George Iſt.
How long did James I. reign over this [...]gdom?
Twenty-two years. He died in 1625, and [...]is ſucceeded on the throne by his ſecond ſon, Charles I. [...] eldeſt ſon Henry, having died before him.
This was the prince that was put to death [...] the people?
It was. For though no monarch ever came [...] the throne of England with a greater variety of fa⯑ [...]urable occurrences, yet, as his father had conſidered the [...]yal privileges as ſacred pledges, and defended them to [...] utmoſt of his power by words, it was Charles's miſ⯑ [...]rtune to aſſert them by action. He wanted to govern [...] people, who had for ſome time, learned to be free, by [...]axims and precedents that had their origin in times of [...]norance and ſlavery. In ſhort, he wanted to be deſpo⯑ [...]; and, when his parliament was not conformable to his [...]ſhes, he would immediately diſſolve it. From ſmall [...]ides he proceeded to greater, and when the parliament [...]und, that the king was diſpoſed to be arbitrary, they [...]ere determined to grant no ſupplies, or raiſe him any [...]oney, till their grievances were redreſſed.
I have underſtood, he raiſed money without [...]e concurrence of his parliament?
When they would not vote any ſupplies, he [...]id arbitrary impoſitions on trade, which many refuſed [...] pay, and extorted money from individuals under a pre⯑ [...]nce of borrowing it; for, as he had a war to maintain [...]ith France and Spain, large ſums of money were conti⯑nually wanting.
And did the parliament raiſe him no money?
Sometimes it would and ſometimes it wo [...] not. This ſo embarraſſed him, that he proceeded gre [...] lengths to procure it. At laſt, the parliament reſent [...] it, raiſed an army in their own defence, (for there was [...] ſtanding army at that time) and the king raiſed an ar [...] likewiſe. This was the beginning of the civil wars th [...] continued eight years, and ended with the execution [...] the king, in 1649.
How was that event brought about?
The parliament-forces were commanded [...] Oliver Cromwell, and the king's forces by himſelf. A [...] after a variety of battles, in different parts of the kin [...] ⯑dom, and a deal of blood ſhed every where, Charles w [...] taken priſoner, tried for high-treaſon againſt the ſta [...] and beheaded at White-hall.
What became of his family?
During the civil wars, his queen and ſo [...] fled to France, and were there protected, ſhe being [...] daughter of France.
How were matters diſpoſed in Englan [...] on the death of Charles?
Oliver Cromwell, who was a leading man [...] the faction, was appointed protector of the kingdom [...] life, and the conſtitution from being monarchical, imme⯑diately became republican, which continued all Cron [...] well's life.
DISCOURSE IV. THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED. The Third Period.
DID Charles II. ſon of the deceaſed kin [...] take no ſteps to recover his kingdom?
He came over to Edinburgh, was there r [...] ⯑ceived with all the formalities of a crowned head, and ha [...] an army raiſed in his defence. Cromwell, however, marche [...] [69]into Scotland, and after a little oppoſition, Charles [...] obliged to fly, and eſcaped his purſuers by diſguiſing [...]ſelf in the dreſs of a peaſant.
How long was it before Charles II. was [...]bred to his ſucceſſion?
Not till two years after Richard Cromwell, [...]ſon of Oliver, had ſucceeded his father as protector of [...] common-wealth. Richard, was by no means equal to [...] father, he had nothing active in his diſpoſition, had [...]her talents for buſineſs, any knowledge of government, [...]any ambition or importance: of courſe, it was planned [...]ng the king's friends, to bring him back to the throne.
General Monck they ſay, was very inſtru⯑ [...]ntal to this?
It was owing chiefly to him. He had begun his [...]tune under the command of Charles I. and was taken [...]ſoner in his ſervice. On the death of his maſter, he [...] releaſed from a long confinement, and had a com⯑ [...]nd under Cromwell. His loyalty however prevailed [...]r every thing, and being at the head of 12,000 Scots, [...] determined to reſtore the royal family, but uſed every [...]caution neceſſary for their ſafety and his own. Being [...]laſt, commander in chief of all the forces in England, [...]tland and Ireland, he marched to London, intimidated [...] parliament, and compelled them to a reſtoration of the [...]al family. This took place in 1660, and Monck went Dover, and received the young king as he landed.
Did Charles II. on his coming to the throne, [...]venge the death of his father?
In ſome meaſure he did. The bodies of [...]omwell and ſome others, were taken from their graves, [...]agged to the place of execution, and there hung up a [...]ole day, and afterwards buried under the gallows, and, [...]t of eighty perſons then living, and concerned in the [...]ath of Charles I. ten were executed. Had Charles II. [...]en an active monarch, he might have been an abſolute [...]e; for the parliament was all obedience; but, inſtead [...] deſiring an aſcendency over them, he was content to be [...] humble dependant on their bounty.
It was in this king's reign I believe, th [...] the great plague ravaged in London?
This happened in the year 1666, ſwept [...] more than 100,000 of it's inhabitants, and was imm [...] ⯑diately followed by a conflagration, which burnt f [...] three days, and almoſt deſtroyed the whole city; but t [...] ſpirit of the people ſoon ſurmounted theſe calamities, a [...] London roſe more beautiful from it's ruins. The city w [...] ſuppoſed to have been fired by the Roman catholics, a [...] the monument in London was erected as memento of th [...] cataſtrophe.
Was not Charles a man of great gallantry?
Very much ſo: he kept ſeveral miſtreſſes and enobled them all. From theſe have ſprung ſeveral of o [...] noble families, the dukes of St. Alban, Grafton, an [...] Richmond. As the king was not married, and his bro⯑ther James, duke of York, was a declared papiſt, the parliament paſſed a law to exclude him from the throne but notwithſtanding this, on the death of Charles, whi [...] happened in 1684, his brother ſucceeded him, as James II
And without oppoſition?
Every oppoſition ſeemed to vaniſh at his ac⯑ceſſion. He made an early declaration in favour of the church of England, and thus became popular; for the people cruſhed a rebellion of the duke of Monmouth, wh [...] was a natural ſon of Charles II. and the troubles attending it ended with his excution.
What was the duke of Monmouth's plea f [...] riſing?
He claimed the crown, under an idea that th [...] king was married to his mother; but it proved otherwiſe
James, however, was not a proteſtant in his heart?
No; he had married a Roman catholic lady the daughter of the king of Spain, had Romiſh prieſts abou [...] him, abetted all of that perſwaſion, and received a nuci [...] or legate from the Eope.
And what was the conſequence?
The church of England took the alarm, and many great men in England and Scotland, applied for re [...] [71]to William, prince of Orange, who had married [...]es's eldeſt daughter. He was a prince of great abili⯑ [...] and a declared enemy of the papiſts.
And what relief did he afford them?
William, being an ambitious prince, all his [...]ons were levelled at power, and he no ſooner received [...] invitation to come over to England with an army, [...]in he equipped a fleet ſufficient to tranſport 15,000 men. [...]mes now ſaw his errors and would have retracted his [...]aſures in favour of popery, but it was too late. Wil⯑ [...]m ſailed from Holland and landed at Torbay, in De⯑ [...]nſhire, with 13,000 troops. The people joined him [...]d the nobility who formed the court and council of king [...]mes, left their old maſter to ſolicit protection from the [...]w.
How did James act in this caſe?
He ſought aſſiſtance from France and Ger⯑many, but in vain. He was, however, at the head of [...],000 men, but when he was told that his favourite [...]ughter Ann had gone over to the prince of Orange, [...]s ſpirits ſunk; and, meeting with little encouragement [...]om his council, he thought of nothing but flying to [...]rance; accordingly he ſent away his queen and ſon, then [...] months old, and ſoon after followed himſelf; thus [...]dicating the crown, and leaving his daughter Mary and her huſband in poſſeſſion of it. This event is called the Revolution, and took place in 1688.
What became of him afterwards.
Being arrived in France, he found protection here, and enjoyed, for the remainder of his life, the [...]mpty title of a king, and the appellation of a ſaint.
Did he make no attempts to recover his kingdom?
The French king aſſiſted him with a fleet and ſome troops, to aſſert his claims; and he ſet ſail at Breſt, [...]anded at Kinſale in Ireland, and was received with open [...]rms by the catholics in that kingdom; but William fol⯑lowed him there, gave him battle at the Boyne, defeated him, and obliged him to fly the kingdom. Another at⯑tempt was made the next year, to ſend a number of [72]French troops into England; but, the French fleet being oppoſed by an Engliſh one, and beaten, all future attempt were given over, and king James paſſed the reſt of his days at St. Germains, a penſioner on the bounty of th [...] French king, the liberality of his daughter and friend in England, and died in 1700. His ſon and grandſon afterwands made attempts on the crown of England, in 1715, and 1745, as I will ſhew hereafter, but were alſo repulſed.
How was William received on his coming to London?
With all the congratulations imaginable. The people having preſcribed to him the terms by which he was to rule, offered him the crown jointly with his wife, and they were crowned by the titles of William III and Mary, king and queen of England.
Did William reign after the death of his queen?
Some few years only; for he was naturally of a feeble conſtitution: his death was haſtened by fall from his horſe, in March, 1702; and he was ſucceeded by Anne, the next daughter of James II. She was thirty-eight years old when ſhe began to reign, and as the French king, thought proper to countenance her brother, wh [...] was called the Pretender, ſhe waged war with France. The duke of Marlborough was her general, who, was ſo able and ſucceſsful as to carry every thing before him. He fought a great many battles and gained them all. Blenheim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, Lafeet, &c. The ma⯑nor of Woodſtock, in Oxfordſhire, was conferred upon him for his ſervices, and Blenheim-houſe built for him and now kept up by government.
Were there any remarkable things happened in her reign?
Gibraltar, a fort belonging to the Spani⯑ards, and deemed impregnable, was taken by Sir George Rooke, and continues in our poſſeſſion to this day.
And the union, between Scotland and England, was effected and took place in 1707.
I think you told me that theſe countries [...]ere united before, by James VI. of Scotland, ſucceed⯑ing to the crown of England?
I did, but this is not the union I mean. [...]efore 1707, the two countries were governed by ſe⯑parate parliaments, as at preſent it is with England and Ireland, but now the Scotch Peers chooſe ſixteen of their [...]wn body to repreſent them in the Engliſh parliament; [...]nd the people of Scotland chooſe forty-five members, [...]ho ſit in one houſe of commons, and the Scotch parlia⯑ment exiſts no longer. And, from the date of this union, [...]he two kingdoms have gone by the name of Great-Britain, the ſubjects of both enjoying a communication [...]f privileges and advantages.
Had queen Anne any iſſue?
She was married to George, prince of Den⯑mark, who lived with her, and by him had one ſon, who [...]ied before her, in his ſixteenth year. Queen Anne died in 1714.
Who ſucceeded her?
If you recollect, I told you that James the firſt had a daughter, married to the king of Bohemia. This daughter left a daughter, the princeſs Sophia of Hanover, on whom the parliament of England ſettled [...]he ſucceſſion, but as ſhe died a few days before Queen Anne, the crown fell to her ſon, George I. elector of Hanover, the fifty-four years of age; for with queen Anne ended the family of the Stuarts.
What is the name of the preſent royal family?
Gwelph.
What became of the ſon of James II. whom [...]e took over with him to France?
On the death of his father, in 1701, he was proclaimed king of England, by the French king at St. Germains, and for ſome time treated as ſuch by the courts of Rome, France, Spain and Turin. He reſided at Rome, where he kept up the appearance of a court, and conti⯑nued firm in the Romiſh faith till his death in 1765. He left two ſons, Charles Edward, born in 1720, who, on [74]his father's death repaired to Rome, but, as the Po [...] would not receive him as king of England, he return to Florence, and is now living, under the title of Co [...] Albany. Henry, his ſecond ſon, is a cardinal, and know by the name of cardinal York.
Did not this James, the old Pretender, ma [...] an attempt on the crown of England?
Yes. In the year 1715, one year after t [...] acceſſion of George the Iſt. he was proclaimed king, Scotland. Some noblemen in that country, took the fie [...] in his behalf, and marched their forces into England, be they were ſoon driven back by the king's forces, und the duke of Argyl, and the Pretender himſelf, who land in Scotland, in the interim, was obliged to decamp.
By this it appears, that the crown of Eng⯑land is by no means hereditary.
It certainly is hereditary, but ſubject to a [...] ⯑terations in that inheritance, by the parliament; that to ſay, when parliament does not interfere for wiſe a [...] politic reaſons, it then deſcends to the next heir.
The ſucceſſion I find, has often been alter [...]
It was altered in Henry IV. Henry V [...] and, now again in George I.
How long did George I. reign?
Upwards of twelve years. He died ſu [...] ⯑denly in his journey to Hanover, in the year 1727, a was ſucceeded by his ſon, George II. who was much i [...] ⯑ferior to his father in point of abilities.
It was in his reign I believe, that the [...] ⯑mous Sir Robert Walpole was miniſter?
It was, and to him chiefly was owing [...] venality of parliaments; for, thoſe whom he could [...] bring over to his meaſure by true policy, and fair reaſo [...] ⯑ing, he contrived to buy over by penſions, honours a [...] offices.
What was the rebellion in this king's rei [...] owing to?
To an attempt of the old Pretender's ſon recover the crown, which his father had failed in.
And was he more ſucceſsful?
No; the French aſſiſting him as they had [...]he his father, he landed in Scotland, in the year 1745, [...], though he brought no troops over with him, by means [...] the chiefs of ſome Highland clans, who armed their [...]als, he ſoon found himſelf at the head of 1500 men, [...]d invited others to join him. He marched into England [...]d his army gathered as it paſſed. He was proclaimed [...]ng of England, at Edinburgh, and promiſed, if he ſuc⯑ [...]eded in his enterprized, to diſſolve the union between England and Scotland, which was diſagreeable to the [...]er orders of the people, and to redreſs all their grie⯑vances; but it anſwered no purpoſe. An army was ſent [...]t of England againſt him, gave him battle, beat him, [...]d obliged him to fly again to France. As in the rebel⯑ [...]on of 1715, ſome few noblemen that took the lead were [...]headed; ſo it turned out in this. Many were taken [...]iſoners, and ſome put to death.
Did this young prince readily eſcape?
Not readily. He was an unhappy wanderer [...]ear ſix months, from mountain to mountain; a wretched [...]ectator of many executions, brought on by his ill-guided [...]mbition; hemmed round by purſuers, till, at laſt, a veſſel [...]om St. Maloes, took him on board, and carried him [...] France in ſafety.
When princes can meet with ſuch misfor⯑tunes, let private perſons who complain of the miſeries of [...]fe, bleſs God and be happy!
Miſfortunes indeed! For thus ſunk all the [...]opes and ambition of this young adventurer; one ſhort [...]our deprived him of imaginary thrones and ſceptres, and [...]educed him from a nominal king to a diſtreſſed forlorn [...]utcaſt.
What family had George II.
He had two ſons and ſeveral daughters. His [...]ldeſt ſon Frederick, father of the preſent king, died [...]rince of Wales. George II. died ſuddenly, in October, 1760, aged ſeventy-ſix, after reigning thirty two years, [...]nd was ſucceeded by his grandſon, our preſent king, ſon of Frederick, prince of Wales. To acquaint you with [...]he many occurrences of this reign, as they are chiefly [76]within your own memory, would be uſeleſs. I ſhall [...] mention to you the loſs of our colonies in America.
In the year 1765, an act was paſſed here for laying ſtamp-duty on the Britiſh Colonies of North America which the people there thought an infringement on the privileges; as by their charters they claimed a right raiſing the quota they were obliged to pay towards [...] ſupport of government, in their own way; for they [...] aſſemblies or parliaments of their own as we have. [...] ſoon as it was known in North American that this act [...] paſſed, the whole continent was in a flame, and all [...] ſtamped paper ſent over was burnt as ſoon as land [...] When the miniſter here was informed of this, they ga [...] the matter up, and an act was paſſed to repeal the one th [...] was ſo obnoxious, and all things were quiet again. B [...] a year or two after, the Britiſh parliament, not being abl [...] to lay an abſolute duty or tax on any commodity ſent on to America, as this would be raiſing money on the people without their own conſent, attempted to affect the ſame thing in another way; for, to enable the Eaſt-India com⯑pany to pay the ſtate a large annual tribute, they allowe [...] them to export their teas duty-free. The Americans, [...] ware of this contrivance, oppoſed it unanimouſly, burn all the tea there imported, and in 1773 boarded ſever [...] ſhips in Boſton harbour and threw the cargoes of tea in [...] the water.
This conduct excited ſo much indignation in the govern⯑ment of England, that they proceeded to rigorous mea⯑ſures: they blocked up the port of Boſton and would [...] ſuffer it to have any trade. The Americans now combin⯑ed, raiſed an army, and a civil war was the conſequence. This was continued to the year 1783, when it ended [...] the ſovereignty and independence of that country; an [...] was the greateſt loſs this nation ever ſuſtained.
[...]ome BOY, learn to be Wiſe.
[]DISCOURSE I. By Way of INTRODUCTION.
ERASTUS AND EUGENIUS.
THIS is juſt what I wiſhed for, an agree⯑able ſhade; let us ſit down, Eugenius, [...] profit by it.
For my part, Sir, I am not the leaſt [...]gued; I could walk here from morning to night [...]hout being weary.
At your age I ſhould have ſaid the ſame; [...]s you as old as me, you would hold a different lan⯑guage.
It is very true, but before I reach forty years, I have, pleaſe God, a long way to go.
Alas! my child, though you ſhould live [...]enty, thirty, fifty years; that interval which ſeems [...] you ſo conſiderable, will eſcape you as a fleeting [...]dow. It is very remarkable that the more our [...] advances, the ſhorter our years ſeem to be. In [...]ancy, weeks appear to be months, and months [...]ars.
And why this?
Becauſe, at that time, life, exempt in embarraſſment, from care and anxiety, is wholly [...] voted to pleaſure; but no ſooner are we entered in [...] buſy ſcene of the world, than care, chagrin and buſin [...] [...] ⯑crond in upon us, and ſucceed with ſo much rapid [...] that we are ſcarce ſenſible of our exiſtence. You a [...] my dear Eugenius, in the very ſpring-tide of life, a [...] it would be a bleſſed time, if you were thoroughly ſe [...] ⯑ſible in what true happineſs conſiſts. Man, if I m [...] uſe the expreſſion, goes out of the hands of nat [...] pure, full of innocence and candour; peace, joy, [...] livelieſt and pureſt pleaſures divide his hours. He [...] like a young plant, which grows, and which wa [...] only the care of a ſkilful and induſtrious hand to bra [...] it up an ornament to the garden. The infant mind [...] like ſoft wax, to which we may give any kind of fon [...]. The ſoul, at that period, free from prejudice, fro [...] vice, from thoſe paſſions that tyrannize over th [...] greateſt part of mankind, is ſuſceptable of good [...] virtuous impreſſions. The mind is a fertile field th [...] requires only good culture and good ſeed to make bring forth, in due ſeaſon, a plentiful harveſt. [...] ſhort, can we ſuppoſe Eugenius, that man wo [...] ever become ſo vicious and ſo wicked, if his mind [...] early formed to virtue?
I hope, Sir, you do not allude to me this, for I ſhould be unhappy if you thought me of wicked turn. If you will aſſiſt me with your advi [...] probably I may be as good as you can wiſh.
That I will with pleaſure; and if [...] ſecond my intentions, you will one day be not on [...] pleaſed with me, but with yourſelf.
You are no longer, my dear Eugenius, in th [...] infant ſtate of life, when man is too weak to liſten [...] the voice of reaſon; you are ſixteen years of age, time when the mind begins to open, and form a judg⯑ment of what it ſees; a time when young men [...] capable of perceiving and knowing what is to con [...] ⯑tute their well-being. Could I have the happine [...] my friend, to make you ſenſible from this moment the value of a good education, how eſtimable m [...] [3] [...] and of what uſe knowledge is in the commerce of [...], you would be enflamed with a deſire to learn and know. What is it that diſtinguiſhes one man from other, but his capacity and knowledge? Does not [...]e ignorant man, he who has no talent, no acquiſi⯑on, reſemble the brute beaſt, who knows only how [...] eat, to drink and to ſleep? Whereas he who has underſtanding and knowledge, is diſtinguiſhed every [...]here, he is uſeful to himſelf and to ſociety, and is an [...]onour to human nature. Whilſt neglect and contempt [...]er accompanies him who is devoid of merit, the man [...]f underſtanding has a thouſand advantages, and is [...]evered and reſpected by all who know him.
I ſhould be really aſhamed to be re⯑ [...]oached with want of underſtanding.
Well then, my dear, let us endeavour [...]o avoid it. Let us apply ourſelves with alacrity. Charmed with the emulation I diſcover in you, I will [...]ouble my attention to you: I will not conſider you [...]s a boy, but as a reaſonable young man, as my friend. Hitherto in our walks we have diſcourſed of [...]rifles and a thouſand indifferent things that anſwered [...]ut little purpoſe; in future our converſations ſhall be more intereſting, more inſtructive, and at the ſame [...]ime, far more agreeable.
With all my heart, Sir; and upon what ſhall they turn?
Upon the moſt uſeful and more neceſſary knowledge in the commerce of life, that ſtate of life to which you are called. Will you not rejoice to know the nature of the world, and what is done in it? We will turn our thoughts to every thing about us; we will ſtudy the great book of nature; we will contem⯑plate the productions of the Creator: and we ſhall then ſee throughout, the moſt ſtriking proofs of his power, his wiſdom, and his love to man. Do you approve of the plan?
Certainly, Sir, but if it ſhould happen, that at any time I ſhould miſunderſtand you, you will excuſe the liberty I ſhall take, in aſking a further explanation.
Without doubt. You ſhall aſk me wh [...] you pleaſe, and I will ſatisfy you to the beſt of [...] knowledge; and be aſſured, the more queſtions you [...] me, the better pleaſed I ſhall be. But do not imag [...]. I am propoſing to you a ſtudy or a diſquiſition [...] ſubjects. No, my friend, our converſation ſhall be real amuſement; and you will be ſurprized to fin [...] that in the courſe of our evening walks you will [...] prove faſt in knowledge, even without pains an [...] without ſtudy. I will endeavour, however, to thro [...] your thoughts into ſome order, leſt want of arrange⯑ment ſhould lead you to forget what you hear.
DISCOURSE II. ON THE NATURE OF MAN, AND OF EDUCATION.
AGREEABLE to our plan, my dea [...] Eugenius, let us begin by caſting o [...] eyes upon ourſelves, and endeavour to know who an [...] what we are.
Is it poſſible that we can need an enqui [...] of this kind? Are you not Eraſtus, and am I no [...] Eugenius?
Such is not the knowledge I allude to I would have you learn, at leaſt Femember, that you are man.
That I am man! Do not I know th [...] already?
I believe you know it; but I am certain that you have thought very little about it, and th [...] you have not yet entered into the diſtinction between man and other creatures about him. By what chan [...] is it, that you and I, and all the perſons upon earth are what we are?
It is not chance that has made us wh [...] we are, but God.
You are right. We owe to God alone [...]ry advantage that we have, and that we are ſuch [...]ngs as we find ourſelves; cloathed, walking, diſ⯑ [...]rſing, in a word, thinking and rational animals; [...]ilſt there are upon the earth a prodigious quantity [...] creatures of a different kind. But tell me, why are [...]ey not called man as well as us, ſince they are born, [...]ow, and die like us?
Becauſe they are not endowed with [...]aſon.
True. It is reaſon that eſſentially diſ⯑ [...]guiſhes us from brutes, but what is it that diſ⯑ [...]guiſhes man and brutes from all theſe plants; from [...]is tree, for example, which lives and grows like us, [...]d like that colt that bounds acroſs the meadow?
I know no difference, unleſs it be that I [...]d that animal utter ſounds, run, jump, whereas the [...]ee neither ſpeaks nor moves.
But this ſtone which I touch with my foot equally dumb and immoveable, and yet it is neither tree nor a plant. Learn then the principal difference between a brute, a plant, and a ſtone. The brute [...]es and at the ſame time has certain ſenſes, the plant [...]es alſo, but has no ſenſe, and as to the ſtone, it has [...]either life nor ſenſe.
We have in common with the brutes the natural [...]nſes of the body; for example, ſight, ſmell, hear⯑ [...]g, taſting, and feeling; and, in general, in animals [...]ey are more delicate than in man. The cat has a [...]etter ſight, the dog a better ſcent, and the hare a [...]reater power of hearing. The plant has nothing in [...]ommon with man and brute but life, that is to ſay, [...]egetation. The ſtone has nothing in common with [...]ther one or the other but the ſubſtance or matter of [...]hich it is compoſed. We are formed from the duſt [...]f the earth, and to that duſt we ſhall return.
Let us look into ourſelves now. God alone has made us what we are. Were we to examine the [...]ructure of our bodies, we ſhould find, that the mi⯑ [...]uteſt part of us is finely formed to anſwer the purpoſe or which it was deſigned. Our whole frame is ſuch an [...]xquiſite piece of mechaniſm, as no human art could [6]complete. Could we ſee our internal make, we ſhould ſtand much more amazed, than we do in examining t [...] work of a watch; and to the curious, philoſophic ey [...] we ſhould appear as much more beautiful than we na [...] rally are, as the inſide of a watch is more beautiful th [...] when covered with its caſes. God having then forme [...] us as we are, had he pleaſed, he could have continue [...] us in our original nothingneſs; but he thought prope [...] to draw us forth, and place us here upon the earth among milions of objects of which the earth is fu [...] ▪ He has, in ſhort, made us man. And what is th [...] human individual? Is he not the moſt noble creat [...] that has iſſued from the hand of the Almighty? Th [...] only animal that reaſons, thinks, can reflect upon itſelf and raiſe its mind even to the author of its being in a word, is he not the monarch of all that exiſts: Have you ever attended to that pre-eminence of m [...] over all the other objects of nature? Do you com⯑prehend the greatneſs of your privileges? What thi [...] you of this, Eugenius?
I am confounded and aſtoniſhed, Sir, [...] what you tell me. From this moment only, have begun to perceive the remarkable kindneſs of th [...] Creator, in making me what I am. I own, till now I never turned my thoughts upon the ſubject.
Is it ſufficient to be ſenſible of the to [...] ⯑vantages God has given us? Is there nothing owing to the giver of them?
Certainly, Sir; our gratitude and than [...] are due to him.
We not only owe him gratitude, but a [...] our love; and as we receive every good gift from him to whom ſhould we apply in any of our wants but to him? Hence then the neceſſity of our religious duties it is our duty not only to thank him, and to hono [...] him, but alſo to pray to him. In performing this duty we do no more than what is right, than what good ſenſe and the ſentiments of the heart point out: na [...] were we placed here on earth, merely as the brut [...] to live and die, and without any other hope, we ſhou [...] equally owe a homage to the Divinity, for endow in [...] us with reaſon and making us ſo much ſuperior [...] [7] [...]her animal; but when we come to conſider the [...]any acts of kindneſs our Creator has beſtowed upon [...], we ſhould fail in our duty, if we did not give him [...] all our heart and all our love. But is there nothing [...]e that diſtinguiſhes us from brutes?
We have a ſoul that ſhall never die.
There lies the pre-eminence that chiefly [...]arks the difference between men, and brutes and [...]ery other animal on the face of the earth. Our [...]odies, which are merely organized earth, will ſhare [...]e fate of other animals, but the more noble part of [...]s, the ſoul, is ordained to live for ever. Now, why [...]s God given us this immortal ſoul? How ought it [...] be attended to? You cannot be ignorant of this; [...]ou muſt remember the many leſſons on this ſubject [...]ou have been taught in your childhood; but I wiſh to [...]ow what conſequences you draw from the reflection, [...]at though the body be born to die, the ſoul will [...]ever die.
It ſeems natural to conclude, that we [...]ught to live well, ſince the ſoul after death, will be [...]ernally happy or unhappy, according to our conduct [...] this life.
True, my friend: you enter perfectly [...]nto my ideas. I am charmed to find you compre⯑ [...]end, that man is born for an end worthy of himſelf. This is the point I am at. Nothing is more impor⯑ [...]ant [...]ant than to think of one's latter end. St. Bernard [...]ſed frequently to ſay to himſelf, "Bernard, for what [...]nd did you come into the world?" And ſurely, an [...]ternity of happineſs or miſery is no trifling matter. He who does not ſtudy it, is little elſe than a mad man. Yes, my dear Eugenius, to live, as if we were not to die, or as if we had nothing after death either [...]o hope or to fear, is the height of blindneſs; it is to forget that we are men; it is, in ſhort, to debaſe our⯑ſelves below the brute creation. Under the want of ſuch a thought, the ſtate of brutes would be the moſt preferable; for if they have nothing to hope for after death, they have nothing to apprehend; ſo that all they do in life is indifferent: but man is capable of good and evil, and you find that it is not a matter of [8]indifference to him, for if he acts well, he will be [...] ⯑warded eternally, if ill, he will be puniſhed. T [...] the eſſential buſineſs of man, during his ſhort ſtay [...] earth, is reduced to the neceſſity of living well. Th [...] world is to him merely a place of paſſage, and is [...] ⯑inn in his journey to the next; and it is in this ro [...] through life that he is to take care not to loſe his wa [...] fince if through misfortune he has taken the wro [...] road, he is loft without recovery.
Men ſhould therefore be extremely ca [...] ⯑tious and enquire the right road before they proce [...] upon their journey, and when on it ſubmit to [...] calamity that may befal them, rather than be put o [...] of their way.
Admirably ſaid. It is inſtruction al [...] that can teach man how to proceed, that is to ſay, h [...] he ought to live, ſo as to act conformably to the defi [...] for which his Creator made him. Then, how is th [...] inſtruction to be acquired, but by education? My d [...] Eugenius, you have brought me yourſelf to th [...] ſubject on which I deſigned to talk to you, I mean [...] education of youth: and I hope you will attend to its conſequences.
I certainly conceive that education neceſſary; for without it, how can we know what [...] ought to know?
True. Children are capable of northi [...] by themſelves. They know nothing but what oth [...] take the trouble to teach them; of courſe how gre [...] a misfortune muſt it be to want the advantages of ed [...] ⯑cation! Judge by what you ſee every day. How [...] you find thoſe children whoſe parents take no [...] care?
Oh, Sir, they are wicked, quarrelſon always ready to do evil, to ill treat and injure o [...] another. Some will ſwear and ſay the worſt of thin [...] ▪ They pay no reſpect to perſons; they are diſobedie [...] untractable and ſlothful. They love nothing but run about and play the fool. Should they ſome [...]in go to church, it is only to laugh and make remarks others, without attending to the holineſs of the pla [...] and the great majeſty of the divinity that dwells the
You have given a tolerable good picture thoſe unhappy people; but what think you of the rents of ſuch children?
I think their parents very culpable, and at they will have to anſwer to God for their neglect, their children muſt, in ſuch a caſe, turn out very [...]d.
Nothing is more true. I deplore the fate thoſe thoughtleſs parents who have not diſcharged [...]is ſacred duty. They will one day have a terrible account to give. Was I a legiſlator I would impoſe [...]e ſevereſt penalties on ſuch fathers and mothers, who [...]ave it in their power to inſtruct their children and yet [...]mit to do it. They are not only the cauſe of ſending broad into the world, as many bad members of [...]ociety as they have children, but it is probable that [...]oſe bad children, will alſo neglect the education [...]f their deſcendants, and from this unfortunate pro⯑ [...]reſſion, a multitude of bad citizens may ariſe from [...]he neglect of their anceſtors. Do you feel the force of this reaſoning?
Very ſenſibly.
An anecdote of antient hiſtory will make [...]ou conceive the advantages of a good education ſtill [...]etter. Lycurgus, the Lacedemonian law-giver, de⯑ [...]rous of ſhewing his people how neceſſary it is to form [...]outh early, if we would make them uſeful to the [...]ate, took two little dogs of the ſame ſpecies, and [...]rought them up in a very different manner. One he [...]ndulged in every thing, the other he inured to the [...]hace. When age had ſtrengthened their bodies and confirmed them in what they had been accuſtomed to, [...]e brought them out into a public place in preſence of all the citizens, whom he had convened together, and having ſet before theſe two dogs ſome dreſſed [...]ood, he turned looſe a hare before them. One of the two dogs immediately fell to devouring the meat to which he had been accuſtomed, the other ſet off after the hare, which it preſently caught. All the people applauded his deſign. When Lycurgus ad⯑dreſſing the aſſembly, ſaid thus, "Theſe two dogs [10]are of the ſame ſpecies; ſee what a difference edu [...] ⯑tion has made between them!"
Lycurgus could not give poſterity a m [...] uſeful leſſon. It is aſtoniſhing that I ſhould never ha [...] thought of this. Oh, Sir, if children conceived, a [...] conceive at preſent, the ineſtimable value of edu [...] ⯑tion, they would be more attentive and more wiſe th [...] they are.
Alas! Did they but know how well [...] wiſh them; were they ſenſible of the many anxio [...] hours we paſs on their account, they would be mo [...] grateful than they are. But come, I ſee you are d [...] ⯑poſed to liſten to inſtruction, and I will do my utmo [...] to make you acquainted with every thing a young m [...] ought to know. Our firſt conference ſhall be a God the author of all things, but we will defer the ſubject till we have more time to ſpare.
DISCOURSE III. ON GOD, THE CREATION AND FALL OF MAN.
OF all the truths, my dear Eugenius which religion teaches, the firſt and the reſt, is the knowledge of a Supreme Being, th [...] Author and Creator of all things. How do you appre⯑hend I ſhall prove the exiſtence of this Sovereign Arbi⯑ter of Nature?
Nothing ſeems more eaſy, Sir. When I ſee a fine building, I ſay to myſelf, this ſuperb edifice has been erected with great order and regularity. An able architect and ingenious workmen have been its contrivers and executors. So when I think of the world, and all the wonders I behold in that world, I naturally cry out, certainly theſe things muſt have [11]in the workmanſhip of an Almighty power, and [...]s power is the God I adore.
You reaſon right. To be convinced of [...]e exiſtence of a ſovereign Wiſdom, it is ſufficient [...] open our eyes and look about us. If the conſide⯑ [...]tions of the heavens, and the ſtars, their beauty, [...]eir brightneſs, their regularity, and their wonderful [...]volutions, ſo conſtant and exact, will not convince us⯑ [...] this truth, we ſhall find it ſtrongly imprinted in the [...]aves and upon the ſhores of the ſea, in plants, in the [...]roduction of herbs and fruits, in the variety and [...]ſtinct of animals, in the ſtructure of our bodies and [...]n the features of our faces; In ſhort, God having [...]reated us for himſelf, he has graven in our hearts the [...]ruth of his exiſtence. There is no people, nor any [...]ation, even the moſt ſavage, who have not an idea of a Divinity. It is true, ſome pay their homage to objects unworthy of their veneration; but it is for want of a more enlightened underſtanding and a better [...]nformation.
They may have abilities to conceive, but no perſon to direct their conceptions to the right object.
This is one of the beſt remarks I have heard upon the ſubject, and convinces me, I ſhall not loſe my time and labour in endeavouring to improve you. Let us then enquire into the nature of God, as far as our capacities will carry us: but at beſt we can have but a very imperfect idea of him; and we can know no more of his attributes, than he has conde⯑ſcended to diſcover in the Old and New Teſtaments, which are the writings of inſpired authors, dictated by God himſelf, and as ſuch are the precious depo⯑ſites of our faith.
Now, the attributes are there declared to be, that he is independant, that is, that he is ſelf-exiſtent, de⯑riving his exiſtence from no other being; that he is eternal, that is to ſay, that he never had a beginning, nor ever will have an end. That he is infinite; by this we mean, that he has an unlimited power, and poſſeſſes all imaginable perfections in a ſovereign de⯑gree; that he is a pure Spirit, having neither body, [12]figure, nor colour; of courſe that he cannot bel [...] perceived, nor touched.
Permit me, Sir, to interrupt you [...] You ſay that God has neither body nor figure, [...] then is mention made of his hands and feet? Ho [...] it ſaid that he appeared to the patriarchs?
Man being limited in his underſtandi [...] was the Deity not deſcribed to him in terms [...] which he is acquainted, he could have no concept of what is told him. It is for this reaſon that ſt [...] terms are made uſe of; and when we are told in [...] ſcriptures that God ſpoke and ſhewed himſelf to m [...] we are to underſtand, that it was an angel only w [...] deſcended in the name of the Moſt High, and appear in human form, to communicate to men the orders the Supreme Being.
Another attribute of the Deity is immenſity, th [...] is to ſay, he fills all ſpace, and is at one and the fa [...] moment, in all parts of the univerſe, confined to no par⯑ticular ſpot or place.
He is alſo immutable, that is, not ſubject to chang [...] ▪ If it be ſaid in the Scriptures, that God is angry, [...] that he repents; we are not to underſtand by thi [...] paſſion or change; but theſe ſo deſcribed to us, th [...] we may comprehend them.
He knows all, both the preſent, the paſt, and th [...] future, nothing is hid from him, and he penetrates th [...] very thoughts of the heart.
He is Almighty, for he would ceaſe to be God, i [...] his power was not immenſe and abſolute.
He has drawn from nothing every thing that exiſ [...] and that by the ſole act of his will. "Let there b [...] Light," ſaid he "and there was light."
He preſerves all creatures, and guards their ex⯑iſtence continually, for if he ceaſed to ſupport them they would ſink into that nothingneſs from whence h [...] firſt formed them.
In ſhort, nothing happens in this world without hi [...] order and permiſſion. God then diſpoſes all the event [...] of the world. The ſmalleſt action of every creature, the leaſt thought of the mind, is all regulated by his [13] [...]ite wiſdom. And in this adminiſtration, this go⯑ [...]ment of the univerſe, which ſeems to us ſo im⯑ [...]oſe, but which to him coſt far leſs trouble than [...]king of the eye to us, he had no other object in [...] than the manifeſtation of his glory to all created [...]gs.
But, Sir, of God conſulted only his glory [...]ll that paſſes here, why does he permit, for ex⯑ [...]le, the many diſorders which reign among men?
He permits evil, to draw from it a greater [...]d. If he afflicts good men in this life, it is to re⯑ [...]d their virtues in another. If he gives the wicked [...]ſitory proſperity, he makes uſe of their malice, [...]er to exerciſe his juſtice or his mercy upon his [...]tures. Such is, my friend, the idea which God given us of himſelf and of his attributes.
What idea have you of angels?
My idea of angels is, that they are ſpi⯑ [...]al creatures, not formed with bodies, of courſe not [...]ble of being ſeen, perceived or touched; for the [...]re of a ſpirit is to have neither body, form, nor [...]ur. And if ſome angels have appeared to men, [...] mentioned juſt now, by order of the Almighty, [...] have put on an apparent body, rather than a [...]one.
[...]ngels were created for eternal life, (that is, never [...]e) to know God as he is, and to enjoy him ever⯑ [...] [...]gly. They are endowed with a very pure under⯑ [...]ding, ſo as to know what is good, with a will well [...]ſed to love, and every neceſſary grace for conti⯑ [...]g in the love of the Creator, and enjoying ever⯑ [...]g happineſs.
[...]any of them, however, loſt themſelves by their [...]. Fancying themſelves more perfect than God [...]elf, or at leaſt coveting to partake with the Su⯑ [...]e Being, the exerciſe of his almighty power, they [...] to withdraw themſelves from his controul. The [...] to puniſh this audacious ſacrilege of their black [...]titude, threw them headlong down into a dreadful [...], called hell, where remorſe and deſpair will for [...]forment them. The rebellious angels are called [...], Powers of Hell, Demons, Malicious Spirits, [14]and Angels of Darkneſs; and we have given to o [...] whom we ſuppoſe their chief, the name of Satan.
Are theſe demons then confined in he [...] If ſo, why is it ſaid that the devil "is roaming abo [...] ſeeking whom he may devour?"
Theſe fallen ſpirits ſuffer that eternal puniſhment due to their rebellion, but this does [...] prevent many of them wandering over the earth u [...] the day of judgment. Theſe are conſtantly end [...] vouring to draw men into ſin, that they may ha [...] companions in their misfortune.
But, Sir, why does God, who is infinite [...] good, ſuffer them to ſeduce mankind?
For the ſame reaſon that I told you permitted evil; that he may draw from it a great good. We are to reſiſt the temptations of the de [...] and he that reſiſts them will have everlaſting life.
Can you give me a better idea of [...] Creation, than what the Scriptures afford?
All our information on this head is gath [...] ⯑ed from the Scriptures, that hiſtorical part written Moſes. I may poſſibly help you to form ſome o [...] ⯑ception of it; but the whole can only be imagina [...]. It is ſuppoſed that this globe, that is, the ex [...] for we can ſpeak only of the planet we inhabit, [...] before the creation, a confuſed maſs of matter, which we have given the name of Chaos. That tho [...] the Almighty took the ſpace of ſix days to compl [...] his purpoſe, he could have given being to every th [...] at one and the ſame inſtant, for he had only to wi [...] to ſay "Let it be" and it was. Having in one created the Light; in another, the Heavens and Earth; in a third, the Waters; in a fourth, the [...] the Moon and the Stars; in a fifth, the inhabitance the Air and the Waters, that is, birds and fiſhes; on the ſixth day created every terreſtrial animal; done, deſirous of giving the world, ſo formed, a ma [...] and placing upon earth a rational creature, who m [...] partake with the angels (before created) the h [...] ⯑neſs of praiſing the Lord, he made man after his image; that is, the ſoul of man, in imitation [...] rational faculties, though in a much inferior deg [...]
He was formed, we are told, of the earth?
We are to ſuppoſe he formed his body of [...] earth, and then breathed into him a living ſoul, [...]ich is the principle of human life.
I have been always given to underſtand, [...], that the blood is the principle of life, for if we [...]re to take from a man all the blood in his veins, he [...]uld die.
It is true that ſuch a man could not live; [...] we muſt not hence conclude that the blood is the [...]inciple of life: it is only the inſtrument, and there a great deal of difference between the principle and [...] inſtrument. In writing, would you ſay it is the pen [...]at writes? It is the pen certainly that traces the [...]aracter, but it is the hand that directs the pen, and [...] ſoul that guides the hand. In the ſame manner [...] ſoul gives motion to the blood, and directs the cir⯑ [...]lation, and as this motion and circulation is the [...]ſtrument of life, it follows that the ſoul which directs [...]em is the principle.
As the ſoul is ſo neceſſary; let me know, you pleaſe, its nature.
The ſoul is an immortal ſpirit, created [...]ter the image of God.
In the firſt place it is ſpiritual, that is to ſay, it has [...] ſame properties as angels have, to have neither [...]dy, figure nor colour, of courſe, not to be ſeen, [...]erceived or touched. It is thus reaſon proves its [...]irituality.
It is, in the ſecond place, immortal, that is to ſay, [...]ll exiſt for ever, not independant of God, but with [...] permiſſion, for as he created the ſoul, he could [...]ertainly annihilate it.
In what manner is the ſoul and body [...]ed?
It is impoſſible to anſwer that queſtion, [...]t by conjecture, it being one of the myſteries of [...]ure of which we are at preſent unacquainted. We [...]e convinced of the union, but no one can tell how. [...]ll that experience will permit us to ſay, is, that the [...]ul continues with the body, whilſt the body preſerves [...]e organs neceſſary to carry on the different operations [16]of the ſoul, and that it leaves it, when the harmony this wonderful machine is deſtroyed. Then man ce [...] to be, for that which conſtitutes man, properly ſpe [...] ⯑ing, is the union of ſoul and body.
How did God form the ſoul of the [...] man?
The Scriptures teach us, that God h [...] ⯑ing formed the body of earth, breathed into it, [...] it became a living ſoul: but what is this breath God? The expreſſion can only indicate the ſpiritual of the ſoul.
You will excuſe, Sir, my impertin [...] queſtions. Curioſity, which brought on this gr [...] ſubject, leads me to it. I have but one more to [...] and that is, whether God creates every ſoul, in unit [...] it with the body, or whether the ſoul of man, althou [...] ſpiritual and immortal, is an emanation of, and ſprit [...] from, the ſoul of Adam our firſt parent?
Some of the fathers of our church h [...] refuſed to decide upon this queſtion; but St. Jer [...] ▪ St. Ambroſe, and others, have taught that God crea [...] every ſoul when he unites it with the body. Thi [...] the general opinion of divines, as conformable to b [...] writ.
I have often enquired whethe ani [...] have ſouls, but could never get a right anſwer.
Men are divided upon this ſubject, ſo [...] have thought they have; but the far greater p [...] believe the contrary. As you have read the B [...] through and through, and are tolerably well inform [...] in Scripture Hiſtory, give me an account, Eugeni [...] of the creation of the firſt woman.
After God had created man, we are t [...] that the Lord threw Adam into a deep ſleep, [...] whilſt he ſlept, took from him one of his ribs, [...] which he formed the woman, called her Eve, and p [...] ⯑ſented her to Adam when he awoke, and that Ad [...] at firſt ſeeing her, cried ‘This is bone of my b [...] and fleſh of my fleſh. Therefore ſhall a man l [...] his father and mother and cleave unto his [...] and they ſhall be one fleſh.’
And do not you remark in theſe words, [...] inſtitution of marriage?
Clearly. But there is one thing that [...]barraſſes me much in this account. It is not ſaid [...]t God gave a ſoul to Eve as he did to Adam. [...]ve women therefore no ſouls?
It was not neceſſary that the Scriptures [...]uld ſay ſo. God in creating woman deſigned to [...]ke her a fit companion for Adam: to do this he [...]ld do no leſs than endow her, as he did the man, [...]h reaſon, and give her a ſoul with the ſame proper⯑ [...]s and privileges.
How is it then that we ſee the generality women have leſs underſtanding than the men?
Be cautious how you give into this. It certainly true that a great number of women have [...]t faculties equal to a like number of men, but this [...]ference riſes, not from the nature of the ſoul, but [...]m want of equal education, and from the delicacy [...] their frame.
The education of girls is very much neglected, par⯑ [...]ularly among the better ſort of people. Inſtead of [...]plying to ſtudy, their time is ſpent in trifles, and [...]curious idleneſs, which enervates their mind, and [...]akens their bodies. And what is the reſult? They [...]ow what they ought to be ignorant of, and are norant of what they ought to know. But let us pro⯑ed on the ſubject we were upon.
After the creation of the man and the woman, God, [...]o formed them only to make them happy, placed [...]em in a delightful garden, where nature ſeemed to [...]ve collected all her riches. They were to cultivate [...]d take care of this terreſtrial paradiſe of which God [...]ve them the command, except of one tree, which he [...]rbad them to touch, upon pain of death. The cul⯑ [...]vation of this garden, whilſt man continued innocent, [...] as not a work of labour, (as the earth produced every [...]ing ſpontaneouſly, that is, of itſelf) but a ſweet and [...]anquil employ, which varied every inſtant and fur⯑ [...]ſhed them with motives to adore and praiſe the [...]unty of the Creator. Bleſſed with the natural lights [...] which man is capable, we do not trace in Adam [18]and Eve any of that groſs ignorance which obſcu [...] our underſtanding in the inſtant of our birth. [...] defect in judgment and reaſon tarniſhed the beauty [...] their minds. They were at full liberty to act as the pleaſed; and had a will well diſpoſed to do righ [...] without any determined inclination to evil. God g [...] them all the aſſiſtance, all the grace neceſſary, if th [...] made a proper uſe of it, to procure them eternal life and without which they could not obtain it. But [...] ⯑gardleſs of their intereſt, they ſinned.
And how?
I told you, that God left them at [...] liberty to make free with every thing in the garde [...] but one tree, which he called the Tree of knowledge [...] good and evil, becauſe in abſtaining from it they woul [...] have been happy and have known no evil; wherea [...] eating of that tree, they became unhappy, and con⯑ſequently, by fatal experience, became acquainted wi [...] evil.
Was it not an apple-tree?
That is of little conſequence. The wo [...] which the Scriptures expreſs it by, is that which w [...] tranſlate apple, though it expreſſed in general all tree that bore fruit.
But why did God lay our firſt pare [...] under ſuch a prohibition?
To give them an opportunity of deſen [...] ⯑ing, by their obedience, the happineſs he deſigne [...] for them; and remark the goodneſs of the Lord eve [...] in this prohibition. He might have contented himſe [...] with ſimply forbidding man the uſe of that dangerou [...] fruit; but no, he laid before him the conſequences [...] his diſobedience, and the misfortunes that would follo [...] his tranſgreſſion. We read, however, that in ſpite [...] ſuch interdiction, the devil, in the form of a ſerpen [...] tempted Eve to eat, and ſhe prevailed with her huſban [...] to do the ſame.
What happened to them after this?
Guilt ſtared them immediately in t [...] face; they became inſtantly ſenſible of their crim [...] and God, to puniſh their diſobedience, told the m [...] that the earth ſhould henceforth produce thorns a [...] ⯑briers, [19]and that he ſhould eat his bread "in the ſweat [...] his brow;" and as to the woman; that ſhe ſhould [...]ng forth children with pain, and be under the con⯑ [...]ul of her huſband all her life: but this was not all, [...]y were from that inſtant made ſubject to infirmi⯑ [...]s and death; their inclinations got an evil way and [...]lined them to ſin; their liberty was abridged, and [...]ey had not the power of doing right with the ſame [...]dineſs as before; they loſt the command which [...]od gave them over the brute creation, and as they [...]volted againſt God, ſo the brutes revolted againſt [...]em; and they were both diſgracefully driven out of [...]radiſe, without a poſſibility of returning. In ſhort, [...]bject to the empire of Satan, heaven, for which [...]ey were created, was ſhut againſt them, and they [...]erited everlaſting damnation.
In what part of the world was Paradiſe [...]tuated?
In the Holy Land; between the con⯑ [...]ence of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris and their [...]paration.
The puniſhment, however, ſeems to me [...]rrible, and I had almoſt dared to ſay, exceſſive.
You would think differently, if you con⯑ [...]dered the infinite greatneſs of the perſon offended. [...]eſides, how eaſy was the taſk enjoined? It was in the [...]ord's power to have returned them into that nothing⯑ [...]eſs from whence his goodneſs drew them; and as he [...]id not do it, it was a mercy.
So far I agree, Sir; but why ſhould he [...]ring us all into the world guilty of a crime we never [...]ommitted? Why ſhould he entail the puniſhment [...]pon all his poſterity?
I love to hear your reaſoning. Had Adam [...]nd Eve obeyed God, and by ſuch obedience have [...]erited the happineſs annexed to their fidelity, would [...]ou have aſked why their poſterity reaped the fruits of [...]heir deſerts?
I certainly ſhould not.
Then why aſk, why we are born guilty of his crime? I will admit there is ſomething incom⯑ [...]rehenſible in this tranſmiſſion of original ſin: but [20]man is incomprehenſible even without this ſin. [...] having, however, clearly revealed this article of [...] faith in the Scriptures; the church teaches it, [...] it is on this belief that the whole extent of reli [...] is founded.
And why ſo, Sir, if you pleaſe?
Becauſe it is this doctrine which ſupp [...] the neceſſity of the incarnation, the death, the r [...] ⯑rection and aſcenſion of Jeſus Chriſt, the baptiſ [...] infants, and the urgency of prayer, repentance, [...] other Chriſtian duties.
You will pardon my want of compreh [...] ⯑ſion, but this does not appear to me very clear.
I will explain it then. Had God trea [...] man as he deſerved, he would have abandoned him [...] his ſentence, and have doomed him to eternal miſ [...] with the rebellious angels; but by an effect of [...] infinite mercy, which ever diſarms his juſtice, [...] wiſhed to draw man from that miſery into which [...] crime had plunged him. For this purpoſe he det [...] ⯑mined to ſend his only Son into the world to die [...] and thus ſatisfy his juſtice for, the ſins of man.
After having paſſed ſentence on the man a woman for their offence, he condemned the ſerpe [...] whoſe form the Devil and aſſumed, to crawl up [...] its belly all its life, and among other things he [...] a continual enmity between him and man, ſaying, [...] "the poſterity of the woman ſhould bruiſe his head words by which the Almighty announced to morta [...] the miraculous birth, the victory and empire of [...] Redeemer over ſin and Satan. To accompliſh [...] promiſe, the Son of God was in after times born of pure Virgin, and by his death, reconciled us [...] the Almighty Father; and it will be our faults no [...] if we are not everlaſtingly happy.
You talk now of the Son of God, and the Father; as there is, in reality, but one God, apprehend it is a myſtery that cannot be unravelled
It is. The Trinity is paſt our comp [...] ⯑henſion; but we flatter ourſelves it will appear v [...] clear to us in a future ſtate, when we ſhall ſee God and know him as he is. God, in his Holy Scripture [21] [...]hought proper to declare, that Father, Son, and [...] Ghoſt, though deſcribed as three, are only one [...]ence, and equally eternal; and if we are not able to [...]prehend it, it is becauſe we have no intelligible [...] to expreſs it by. You may poſſibly form ſome [...] of its from compariſon. The ſoul is but one, yet it has an underſtanding, that knows; a will, [...] determines; and a memory, that can recollect things. Now theſe three faculties are very diffe⯑ [...], and yet exiſt in one and the ſame ſoul.
[...]o, the ſun is the principle of light and heat, both [...]one and the other are as old as the ſun, for the [...] cannot ſubſiſt a moment without ſhining, and by [...]ing it gives both light and heat. You ſee there⯑ [...] that there are things in ourſelves, and in nature, [...]ld as the principle from which they ſpring: as [...]ily, therefore, may we believe, that though, in [...] work of our redemption, the Father is ſaid to [...] his Son, the Son to obey the Father, and the [...]y Ghoſt to apply the infinite merits of the Son to [...]kind, yet they are not inferior one to another, [...] that the union between the three, is ſo great, [...] in ſpeaking of one of them, it may neceſſarily [...]y our meaning to the other two.
But if this Redeemer was ſo neceſſary, [...]y did not God ſend him upon the earth immediately [...]er the fall of the firſt man?
Becauſe he would have men learn by the [...]erience of four thouſand years, the neceſſity of [...] meaſure.
Are all men damned then who were [...]in before the birth of our Saviour?
By no means. "The Lamb of God, ſays John, was ſacrificed before the creation of the [...]rld;" that is to ſay, God not only formed the [...]nal decree, of the death and paſſion of Chriſt, but [...] took care that the merits of the ſacrifice he made [...]on the croſs, ſhould reach back to the beginning of [...]e, ſo that all mankind, from Adam, until now, [...]ve received the benefits of it. All that man had [...] do before the redemption, was to believe in one [22]God, adore and ſerve him, anxiouſly waiting for [...] hoping in, a future deliverer.
I am very deſirous of knowing, Sir, [...] men began to form themſelves into ſocieties, an [...] enter into all the luxuries and indulgences of [...] ▪ Can you give me any information on this head?
Though it pleaſed the Creator to be [...] upon man every thing that was neceſſary for exiſtence, and he was formed to live upon the nat [...] productions of the earth; yet he endowed him [...] a thirſt for indulgences, and without ſuch a th [...] ſocieties could neither flouriſh nor exiſt. Witho [...] deſire, indeed, for indulgences, our intellectual fa [...] ⯑ties would be a diſadvantage to us; we ſh [...] languiſh away our hours in ſtupidity, occupied [...] with the momentary want. It is the idea only of proving our ſituation, and adding to our happi [...] that urges us to the trouble of thinking.
I apprehend men were firſt in a ſaw ſtate, and it was a deſire of improving this ſitu [...] that led them to form ſocieties.
Exactly ſo. Man originally lived [...] hunter ſtate, and depended upon his bow for daily ſubſiſtance; ſo that it required an exten [...] diſtrict of land to maintain a tribe of men; for [...] not a ſmall ſpot that will maintain a number people, who are to live upon wild animals taken [...] hunting. As men therefore grew populous, tha [...] encreaſed in number, they found it neceſſary to [...] ⯑tivate land, in order to procure them food; and [...] cultivation, led on to ſociety, for when they bec [...] poſſeſſed of property, it was neceſſary to guard [...] property from encroachments. Hence the law [...] M [...]m and J [...]m, that is, from this time they p [...] ⯑ceeded to defend their property by law. And w [...] they could preſerve it they endeavoured to encr [...] it: they built houſes, furniſhed thoſe houſes, [...] each head of a family became a huſbandman.
I can readily conceive that by [...] means a very large ſtock of proviſion might be ac [...] ⯑mulated.
Yes, more than enough. This ind [...] [23]numbers to turn their talents to other things. Some [...]loyed themſelves in making unteſils, others in [...]icating cloaths and ſundry neceſſaries, which [...] gave in exchange for corn and other produc⯑ [...]s of the land. It is eaſy to conceive from hence, [...] ſocieties grew and became flouriſhing.
The method of exchanging property [...] have been exceedingly inconvenient.
In large purchaſes between men of opu⯑ [...]e, the inconvenience might not be great; but in [...]ll purchaſes, ſuch exchanges muſt have been [...]ubleſome. It was this that gave riſe to the inven⯑ [...] of money, which is eaſily carried, and by general [...]currence is a very good ſubſtitute for any kind of [...]modity we may wiſh to give, in exchange for an⯑ [...]er we are more in want of: and that this money [...]uld never vary, it was thought proper to place it [...] the hands of government, and protect it by the [...]wer of the laws.
DISCOURSE IV. GENERAL IDEA OF STUDY, AND [...] OF THE ARTS AND SCIENCES.
I Am delighted, Sir, with the informa⯑tion you are pleaſed to give me, and [...] plan of ſtudy you have laid down for me, and if [...] knew in what ſituation of life I ſhould be thrown [...]to, I would requeſt you to give me ſome directions [...] my conduct.
May that happy diſpoſition of your's be [...]ſting! God will not fail to aſſiſt your intentions in [...]at is right and honeſt. It is no matter what ſitua⯑ [...]on of life you are in; no man in any ſituation can [...] reſpectable, without honour, without prudence, [...]d without abilities.
A great deal depends upon the ma [...] of our education?
True. Man is like a tree. Look yo [...] to the banks of that river, to the right and lef [...] can ſee that thoſe two rows of elms have been u [...] the direction of different men. One row, [...] young, has been better trained up than the o [...] ▪ You may ſee they are of the ſame ſpecies by the [...] and the bark, and the ſoil of both is of the f [...] quality. Take notice of this row. How [...] neat, and well cut; how green and flouriſhi [...] ▪ How ſpreading and majeſtic! There is ſcarce a [...] through any of their bodies; in ſhort, there is fault to be found with them; but they afford [...] greateſt proſpect of turning out fine timber. [...] your eyes now on the other row, ſee how ſcrubb [...] knotty, crooked, and full of moſs and cankers [...] are! Ragged bark, yellow leaves with ſmall with [...] heads. Whence now ariſes the difference in t [...] two rows of trees, if not in the manner in which t [...] were trained when young? One was certainly atte [...] ⯑ed to, and the other neglected. And there is [...] doubt but that in time, one row will turn out exc [...] ⯑lent timber for building, while the other will be [...] only for the fire.
A very ſtriking compariſon. It bri [...] to my mind the ſtory you told me of Lycurgus [...] his dogs, and all you have ſaid on the differ [...] effects of education. But is it neceſſary that all [...] world ſhould receive all education equally goo [...] ▪ Should the poor and the working part of mankind educated in the ſame manner as the rich?
No; that is not neceſſary. Different eſta [...] of men and different faculties, ſhould be differen [...] educated; but no perſon ſhould be deprived of a [...] ⯑gious and a virtuous education. Let a man's profe [...] be ever ſo low, if he is an honeſt man, induſtrious, [...] a good workman, he will be always reſpectable; [...] the better inſtructed he has been, the more ſub [...] ⯑ſive, obliging and reſpectful you will ſee him; [...] he will acquit himſelf in his work with the m [...] courage and cleverneſs. In ſhort, you will be m [...] [25]pleaſed with him than one leſs inſtructed, and will em⯑ [...]y him in preference. Such is the fruit of education [...] the lower claſs of people, as well as in the upper.
I ſee inſtances of it every day. But, pray [...]l me, what is the uſe of a univerſity education.
I am very much pleaſed with this queſtion. [...] was my deſign to give you a ſuccinct idea of the ob⯑ [...]t of Study, and of the Sciences and Arts.
What are the liberal Arts?
We call thoſe arts liberal, in contradiſtinction [...] working trades, which are leſs honorable, and which [...]quire leſs talents and leſs knowledge: architecture, [...]ulpture, painting, engraving, and the like, are liberal [...]ts.
I have been told that the antients excelled in [...]chitecture and ſculpture. Who were theſe antients, [...]d where did they reſide?
The Grecians, who inhabited Greece, on [...]e borders of the Archipelago, now in the poſſeſſion of [...]e Turks. They flouriſhed many years before the [...]rth of Chriſt, and were renowned for their ſculp⯑ [...]re and their architecture. Many antiquities or pieces [...]f antient ſculpture, have, within theſe few years back, [...]een found buried in the earth in Italy and Greece; [...]here are variet [...] of figures, vaſes, and other things in [...]e Muſeum, that were dug out of the ruins of Hercula⯑ [...]um, a famous city in the neighbourhood of Naples, [...]at was ſwallowed up by an earthquake in the year [...]9. Its ruins were not diſcovered until w [...]thin theſe [...]orty years.
To profeſs theſe liberal arts, is it neceſſary [...]o have an education?
Not a very finiſhed one; but we can cer⯑tainly diſcern among the profeſſors of theſe arts, thoſe who have ſtudied, and have been better inſtructed than [...]thers. They require genius and readineſs, and ſuch as [...]oſſeſs theſe talents make a greater progreſs in their [...]rofeſſion than others.
There are alſo the ſciences which are principal ob⯑ [...]ects of ſtudy. Indeed without ſtudy, we cannot ac⯑ [...]uire any knowledge.
Pray make me acquainted with the names [...] the ſciences.
Of all the ſciences, the moſt eſſential i [...] moral philoſophy, that is to ſay, the ſcience that teache [...] us the duties of religion and thoſe of ſociety. We live my dear Eugenius, but to die. Judge then of the importance of morality, which teaches us how to live well, ſo that we may die well. But there are other ſciences ſtill, which are not only uſeful, but entertain⯑ing. We will run through them as you ſeem to wiſh it.
We will begin with Writing; which, indeed, is rather one of the liberal arts; it is truly the art of painting words, and of ſpeaking to the eyes, and is one of the fineſt inventions of man. To read well, is alſo very uſeful. Good reading is, as it were, a comment upon the ſubject, it explains it as it goes on. Beſides to read ill is a mark of want of education, and nothing is ſo vulgar; it looks as if we did not underſtand what we read.
A principal perfection in writing is orthography. Can you tell me in what this conſiſts?
It is to ſpell the words right.
It is. To write correctly and grammatically, to ſpell the words properly, and uſe right ſtops, is a mark of good ſenſe and a good education. It is the firſt thing we judge by. Now the beſt way to acquire this, is to accuſtom ourſelves to copy, with attention, ſome pages of a book correctly printed. Nothing ſerves more to mark a gentleman and man of underſtanding, than a proper choice of words. This is chiefly acquired by reading, but to aſſiſt on this ſubject, let me recom⯑mend you to a book I have publiſhed for the pur⯑poſe, it points out THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN WORDS ESTEEMED SYNONIMOUS in the Engliſh lan⯑guage, and will be found of uſe to ſuch as wiſh to ſpeak or write with propriety and elegance.*
Another knowledge as neceſſary as writing, is, Arith⯑metic, without which a tradeſman cannot carry on his [27]buſineſs; and a gentleman is liable to be cheated every day. In arithmetic lies the whole art of calculation. There is, indeed, another method of calculating, and a much ſhorter one, I mean Algebra, but it is very diffi⯑cult and but little uſed.
Will you know what is taught at the Univer⯑ſities?
I ſhall be happy to hear; but firſt explain to me the nature of a Univerſity.
A Univerſity is a ſeminary, or ſchool, for [...]earned men, and ſuch as every wiſe government thinks right to eſtabliſh within their dominions. Some coun⯑tries have many, ſome fewer. England has two, Oxford and Cambridge; Scotland has four, Edin⯑burgh, Glaſgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews; and Ireland has one, eſtabliſhed at Dublin. Each of theſe Univerſities conſiſts of one or more colleges, with cer⯑tain endowments. Government having granted them charters, with certain privileges, large ſums of money have been given from time to time by well diſpoſed perſons, to found certain houſes or colleges in thoſe [...]owns. In Oxford there are twenty colleges, in Cam⯑bridge ſixteen, in Dublin but one. Each of theſe col⯑leges are, through noble contributions of the rich, in poſſeſſion of eſtates ſufficient to maintain a certain number of perſons called Fellows, who live together in ſociety, and who employ themſelves in educating young men, either in law, phyſic, or divinity. Such as go there for ſtudy, pay for their education, and to en⯑courage perſons to ſend their ſons to theſe places, there are certain privileges annexed to thoſe on whom the Univerſities ſhall be pleaſed to confer a degree or mark of diſtinction. A clergyman cannot hold two livings unleſs he has taken the degree of Maſter of Arts, or Batchelor of Laws, in one of our Univerſities; nor can he be made a biſhop, until he has taken a Doctor's degree; ſo likewiſe in phyſic. A phyſician cannot practice as ſuch, until he has taken the degree of a Doctor of phyſic. And before theſe degrees are given, the candidates for thoſe honours are examined as to their proficiency in the ſcience they profeſs.
It is a very laudable inſtitution. I have heard of Doctors of Muſic; what are they?
Muſic and poetry are held there a [...] ſciences, and degrees are occaſionally given in both. The degree of Doctor of Laws is rather an honorary degree, and is frequently given to noblemen and other great perſonages as a compliment. There is a [...] certain diſcipline obſerved in the Univerſities, and they govern by laws of their own.
What are the chief ſtudies there?
Beſides the general ſtudies of Law, Phyſic and Divinity, they give lectures in Algebra, Mathema⯑tics, Aſtronomy, Natural Philoſophy, Rhetoric, and Logic.
Will you be kind enough to explain them ſeparately.
Algebra I have already mentioned.
Mathematics is the ſcience which contemplates what⯑ever is capable of being numbered or meaſured.
Aſtronomy is the ſtudy of the heavenly bodies.
Natural Philoſophy is the ſcience of nature. It explains the elements, Air, Earth, Fire, and Water, and ſearches into their cauſes and effects. You ſee how extenſive this branch of ſcience is, it includes mathematics and mechanics, it comprehends all that reſpects powers or ſtrength, extent, meaſures, weights, and the machines employed in different arts.
Rhetoric explains all the figures of beauties of lan⯑guage, and ſerves to give it more energy or more grace; it teaches us the difference of ſtyle, and how to vary it according to the ſubject matter. In ſhort, it is the art of oratory; whereas Logic is the art of cloſe reaſoning.
But there are other ſtudies than theſe?
Yes, many; but not taught and the Univer⯑ſities.
Will you juſt name them?
Beſides the living languages, ſuch as French, Spaniſh, Dutch, and ſo on, there are the dead languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; called dead, from not being perfectly ſpoken any where.
Juriſprudence is the ſcience of the laws.
[29]Phyſic. Under this head, we include Anatomy, the ſtructure of the human body; Surgery, the art of am⯑putation and healing wounds; Chemiſtry, or the art of decom [...]ſing bodies proper for the uſe of medicine, or of dividing, mixing, and purifying different metals; Botany, or the ſtudy of plants; and Pharmacy, the art of compoſing medicines.
Geography ſhews the ſituation of countries and the uſe of maps.
Geometry is the art of meaſuring.
Heraldry is that of knowing the arms of noble fami⯑lies, towns and kingdoms.
Politics is the ſcience of princes and miniſters, and, indeed, is the whole art of government.
Fortification is the ſcience of defending towns againſt the aſſault of an enemy.
Gunnery is the ſcience of artillery; teaching the me⯑thod of uſing cannon, &c.
Tactics is the ſcience of the army.
Navigation, that of equipping and conducting veſſels upon the ſea.
The Manage is the ſcience of horſemanſhip;
Agriculture, the art of cultivation;
Architecture, the art of building;
Muſic, the ſcience of compoſing tunes and pieces of muſic, and
The Belles Lettres, which is polite literature, viz. Poetry, Hiſtory, &c.
Economy is the ſcience of adapting our outgoings to our incomes, and regulating our domeſtic expences.
Thus I have run conciſely through the principal branches of ſtudy, ſome of which it is neceſſary for all men to be acquainted with.
What a crowd of arts and ſciences to chooſe from!
There are others ſtill, but I muſt paſs over them in ſilence. You will acquire a knowledge of them as you advance in the world. All I aim at now, is to give you at leaſt an idea of the utility and extent of ſtudies. You ſee the different arts they lead to; I will explain ſome of them in our future converſation more particularly, but I muſt repeat here, and you [30]will obſerve it through life; that ſuch perſons as have received the beſt principles, and who knew how [...] profit by the inſtructions that were given them in youth, will have infinitely the moſt honour in the world.
DISCOURSE V. OF TRADE AND COMMERCE.
RETURNING to town, Sir, I paſſed by ſeveral markets. What hurry and buſtle [...] ▪ Nothing but proviſions and merchandiſe; buyers and ſellers every where!
Commerce conſiſts in this; and to give you a better inſight into it, we will go into one of theſe markets. Here then we are. What a crowd▪ Take notice what a number of empty carts and waggons. There muſt have been a great ſale of corn to day.
Is not that ſo much the better?
Certainly.
And why?
You do not know then that wheat is the moſt eſſential of all merchandiſe, being the firſt neceſ⯑ſary? What would become of the inhabitants of a city if thoſe if the country were to diſcontinue bringing wheat to market for only ſix weeks? There would [...] no bread. The poor would die with hunger, and the rich would be embarraſſed with their money; they could not eat gold and ſilver. You may judge from this of the benefits we derive from agriculture; and know, that of all merchandiſe, the neceſſaries of life an [...] powerfully intereſted to encourage the commerce o [...] corn, for the more open and unreſtrained that commerc [...] is, the more likely are towns to be populous and flou⯑riſhing; whereas, if cities had no corn market, the would ſoon be deſerted; graſs would grow in th [...] [31]ſtreets, and the inhabitants would be more miſerable than the villagers themſelves; but let us go on. We ſhall come preſently to the beaſt market.
This is the chicken market I apprehend. What a quantity of fowls of all ſorts! chickens, turkies, ducks, poultry ready for the ſpit, eggs, butter, cheeſe, fruit, and vegetables in abundance?
Thus are towns ſupplied with proviſions. Take notice what a variety of articles we draw from the country. How much do we owe to the induſtry and care of the huſbandman who procures us ſuch things as we could not well do without! But this ſale of pro⯑viſions even aſſiſts thoſe to live who live in the neigh⯑bourhood of towns. They are all brought to be con⯑verted into money.
Is it not right that they ſhould profit by the fruit of their labours? We ought to be obliged to them, even though we pay them, for they work for us as well as for themſelves. But let us paſs to the beaſt market. I ſee a prodigious multitude of horſes, cows, ſheep, and pigs. What a crowd of people there is about them! Is it a good thing, Sir, to have ſuch large markets of cattle?
Certainly: The better a market is ſerved, the greater the variety; we can then have ſuch cattle as we want, and ſuch as pleaſe us beſt. Every perſon here in laying out his money, helps the tradeſman and artiſt to live; for thoſe who receive money for the pro⯑viſions they bring to market, lay it out again in the ſame town, for the neceſſaries and conveniences they want.
To accommodate the people in all towns is the reaſon of eſtabliſhing markets once or twice a week; and beſides theſe ſtated days weekly, there are particular markets at certain times of the year, called Fairs: Theſe fairs are authoriſed by government, and are eſtabliſhed for the benefit of the neighbourhood where they are held, and for the convenience of ſelling that merchan⯑diſe that is produced in the places round about. For example, ſome fairs are conſiderable for the ſale of horſes; others for horned cattle, or ſheep; others for cheeſe, for linens, and other things, according to the manufactures in the countries where they are held. At [32]Cheſter there is a great fair annually for Iriſh linen [...] brought over there by the manufacturers from Ireland▪ Theſe fairs, or free markets, by the certain privileg [...] they have, by the abundance and great choice of mer⯑chandiſe they furniſh, and by the concourſe of people they bring together, animate commerce, and occaſion a great circulation of money.
I have ſeen wakes, in the North of England, where there has been nothing bought or ſold.
But wakes are not fairs. A wake is annu⯑ally held on the feaſt of the dedication of the pariſh church, that is, on the day the church was conſecrated; and on theſe feſtivals every houſe-keeper keeps an open table and welcome every comer. All ſorts of rural amuſements go forward on theſe days, but it is a day of pleaſure and not a day of buſineſs.
Will you ſtop here much longer?
No; we will go on to the navigable canal.
What a number of boats there are there! Was the canal made on purpoſe for them?
It was. A ſingle river, which nature alone has formed, is not, in general, ſo ſtrait nor ſo conve⯑nient for the paſſage of boats. Rivers generally wind a great deal, and have a number of ſhallow places that are difficult to paſs; beſides, rivers do not always run from town to town as theſe canals are made to do. Here the banks are made for the purpoſe of horſes to draw the barges along, and with wharfs for the convenience of loading and unloading them. See how the merchandiſe is ranged in different places; timber, firewood, bricks, paving ſtones, ſand, coals, and other things which are here to be conveyed away in waggons to the places they are going to.
Canals then are very beneficial to a town?
Very much ſo. Towns where there is a port as well as a canal, that is, where a navigable river joins it, flouriſh very much, for ſuch rivers bring a variety of things from the ſea and other places out of the reach of a canal, and commerce in ſuch a town is much more extended.
How is this, pray?
Tranſporting of merchandiſe by water is [33]much leſs expenſive and more convenient than convey⯑ing it by land. There now is a boat loaded with coals for this town. It is brought from the colliery or coal mine, twenty leagues from this place, and contains fifty ton weight of coals, more than forty waggons, with four horſes each, can draw; and yet it is drawn upon the water by eight horſes, of courſe here is the expence of one hundred and fity-two horſes, and thirty-seven men to drive thoſe horſes ſaved; for three men are ſufficient to conduct this boat and the eight horſes that draw it. You ſee now how money is ſaved, of courſe the ſeller of the coals can afford to let his cuſtomers have them at a much leſs price, than if they were brought all the way by land carriage. It is the ſame with timber, with corn, and other merchandiſe con⯑veyed by water; ſo that the carriage, if not quite ſo expeditious, is leſs expenſive.
I comprehend it very well. And p [...]ay who are at the expence of cutting theſe canals?
A certain company of gentlemen. Suppoſe, for example, one hundred join one thouſand pounds a-piece, that is, one hundred thouſand pounds; this done they apply to parliament for leave to make the canal, and when parliament have paſſed an act for that purpoſe, allowing them to take paſſes-on it, they carry their plan into execution. So that each of theſe gen⯑tlemen have one hundredth ſhare in ſuch canal, and the profit ariſing from the toll, after the expences of keep⯑ing the banks, &c. in repair, is divided among them, in proportion to their ſhares. By which means they get often a large intereſt for the uſe of the money ſo advanced; and they can ſell their ſhares at any time. Turnpike roads are made by the ſame means, and the toll paid at the gates is the property of the perſons who contribute to make the road. Before turnpikes were made, the roads were impaſſible; no one there⯑fore ſhould grudge a few pence for the convenience of good roads. Turnpikes are now made from town to town all over the kingdom, and, in proceſs of time, canals will be as general. But if you would ſee a com⯑mercial ſcene indeed, you muſt go to a ſea-port.
I ſuppoſe ſo.
You would there ſee a number of people [...] all countries, and ſpeaking different languages; veſſel [...] of various ſtructures and different nations; ſome moore [...] in the port, others coming in, others hoiſting their ſails to go out. French veſſels, Engliſh, Dutch, Swediſh, Ruſſia, Spaniſh, Portugueſe, &c. There are veſſels tha [...] carry from fifty tons burthen to ſix hundred; that is t [...] ſay, large and ſmall; that will carry a greater or a le [...] quantity of merchandiſe. Each ton is twenty hundre [...] pounds weight. In one place upon the ſtocks are ſhip [...] building, in others, upon the beach, ſhips laying on one ſide to be repaired. Every ſhip has its ſails, its cordage, its anchors, its boats, in ſhort, every apparatus neceſ⯑ſary to navigation. Manning a veſſel for ſea, is putting on board a number of men ſufficient to navigate her, and a pilot to conduct her out of port. All theſe men have p [...]ticular offices, from the captain to the cabin boy. There are ſhips of war and merchant ſhips. The firſt belong to the ſtate, and are employed for the defence of the kingdom and its colonies, and for the protection of the merchant ſhips; the latter belong to particular merchants or trading companies, ſuch as the Eaſt India Company, the South Sea Company, and others. It is with ſuch trading veſſels that they run over all the known ſeas with merchandiſe, and from one part of the globe to another.
How is a ſhip directed upon the ſea?
By her rudder, which is a board fixed at the ſtern or tail of the ſhip, under water, upon hinges, and moves to the right or to the left; if moved to the left, by the action of the water againſt it, it will turn the head of the ſhip to the [...]ight; if moved to the right, it turns the ſhip to the le [...]. This rudder is directed by a handle upon deck, which the pilot moves at his pleaſure.
And how do they know which way to go when ought of fight of land?
Out at ſea they are directed by the compaſs, of which I will give you ſome day a more particular deſcription. It is like the hand of a dial that always turns to the north; this is placed before the perſon who [35]ſteers directs the ſhip, and as the ſhip moves, this [...]and moves, and points out whether the veſſel is going [...]ts right courſe: for as it is known in what part of the [...]ompaſs the place lies to which the veſſel is bound, [...]hat is to ſay, whether the port they are going to, be [...]orth, ſouth, or ſo on, the compaſs will always direct [...]hem to that port, by directing the ſhip ſo as that the hand ſhall point north, ſouth, or to that part of the globe to which it is bound; near the coaſts they are directed by ſea marks; trees, or ſteeples planted or [...]erected on high grounds for the purpoſe, and at night by light-houſes, that is, towers with fires burning at the top of them.
Who are at the expence of theſe erections?
Maſters of ſhips [...] themſelves. In this country there is a corporation of gentlemen under the name of the Trinity Houſe, of which there are thirty-one governors, called Elder Brethren. Theſe gentlemen are authoriſed by government, to collect from every maſter of a ſhip, a certain toll, for the purpoſe of erecting beacons and land-marks, to point out ſhelves and ſand. Light-houſes, are ſupported alſo by a ſimilar toll paid to particular people to ſupport the neceſſary ex⯑pences of ſuch lights.
When a ſhip is out of ſight of land for many weeks, is it poſſible to know how far they have got upon their voyage?
Yes. They know this by the Longitude and the Latitude.
Be pleaſed to explain them to me.
The longitude of any place is its diſtance, eaſt or weſt from the port we ſail. And to find this out, we calculate by the pace or rate that the ſhip goes at. Knowing how far diſtant the place is to which the ſhip is going, ſeamen take notice, at ſeveral periods through the day and night, how faſt the veſſel ſails, as whether ſhe goes ſix, ſeven, or eight miles an hour, more or leſs. This is found by throwing what is called the log line, which is a line with a knot at certain diſtances, wound off a reel into the water at the ſhips ſide, by a minute glaſs, and in proportion as the ſhip runs from the knots in this line, each of which is a mile, [36]they, by experience, meaſure its pace, which is [...] down every time the line is thrown, and calculated [...] the end of the day. But this is a very uncertain way [...] findidng it out. They are often very much deceived [...] their reckoning. The latitude, which is the diſtance [...] one place from another, north or ſouth, they can te [...] very accurately, as I will hereafter explain, but th [...] longitude is what ſeamen wiſh to diſcover, and for thi [...] purpoſe moſt nations have promiſed large rewards to the diſcoverer. It may be known by a watch, if on [...] could be made to keep time regularly without the lea [...] variation; one Harriſon invented ſuch a time-keeper, and received from government a reward of twenty thouſand pounds; but this does not quite anſwer the [...] purpoſe, it having been found to vary.
I am anxious to know how a time-keeper will diſcover it?
I will explain that to you at ſome future time, when I give you an account of the earth's motion, as you will then better underſtand it. And I will, at that time, deſcribe the latitude; we will therefore reſume our ſubject. I was telling you, I think, that each ſhip to be equipped for her voyage, muſt have a ſufficient number of men on board her to work her in her paſſage.
What are the officers on board a king's ſhip?
The officers, that rank as gentlemen, are the captain, the lieutenants, and the midſhipmen; the chaplain, the ſurgeon, and the ſurgeon's mate. A young man muſt be a midſhipman ſix years before he can be made a lieutenant, and muſt undergo an exami⯑nation before the Admiralty, as to his proficiency in his profeſſion.
Does ſix years ſervice entitle a man toi a lieutenancy?
No; ſome, that have not intereſt to be appointed lieutenants, have continued midſhipmen all their lives.
Are there more than one lieutenant to a ſhip?
According to the ſize of the ſhip; a firſt and ſecond-rate ſhip have ſix lieutenants each; a third [37]rate, five lieutenants; a fourth or fifth rate, three each; [...]nd every other veſſel, one.
What are the ſeveral ranks of navy officers [...]nd their pay?
An admiral and commander in chief has [...]ve pounds a day, an admiral three pounds ten ſhillings, [...] vice admiral two pounds ten ſhillings, a rear admiral [...]ne pound fifteen ſhillings; captains according to the [...]ize of the ſhips, from one pound fifteen ſhillings per day [...]ach to eight ſhillings; maſter and commander eight [...]hillings; lieutenants, ſome five, ſome four ſhillings, and [...]idſhipmen the pay only of a common man, four or [...]ive pounds a month; the chaplain nineteen ſhillings a [...]onth, and four pence a month from each man's pay; [...]he ſurgeon five pounds a month, and two pence a [...]onth from each man's pay. The other men are paid different ſalaries according to their offices. [...] [...]heſe officers have ſome other perquiſites, beſides a ſhare [...]f the prizes or ſhips they take from the enemy in time [...]f war.
Are there not ſome land forces always on [...]oard ſhips of war?
Marines; who have nothing to do with working the ſhip; their duty is merely to defend it in war, and attack the enemy when the ſhip is fighting. There is generally a company on board each ſhip, about [...]orty in number, under a captain and two lieutenants. And there are ſeventy companies of marines in the whole.
Are the officers of the navy as much [...]eſteemed as thoſe of the army?
Equally ſo, and they rank before the army; [...]hat is to ſay, a captain of a ſhip ranks with a lieutenant [...]olonel in the army, and a lieutenant of a man of war [...]anks with a captain.
Are there any officers in the marines higher [...]han a captain?
Yes; but not ſo many in number. There [...]re but three diviſions or regiments of marines, each of [...]hich has two or more majors, from two to four lieute⯑ [...]ant colonels, one or two colonel commandants, and a [...]olonel. There is alſo a lieutenant-general and a gene⯑ [...]al of marines.
Is there any proviſion made for tho [...] unfortunate ſeamen who are wounded in the ſervice?
Yes; beſides a ſum of money given to each in proportion to his wound, called ſmart-money, there an [...] two charitable inſtitutions for this purpoſe, the cheſt a [...] Chatham, and Greenwich hoſpital.
The Cheſt at Chatham gives gratuities for wounds and ſmall annual penſions to ſuch as have been wounded in proportion to what they have ſuffered.
Greenwich Hoſpital receives ſuch ſeamen as by age wounds, and other accidents, are diſabled from furthe [...] ſervice, and provides for the widows and children [...] ſuch as are ſlain. In this hoſpital are generally tw [...] thouſand three hundred men, one hundred and fifty boys, and one hundred and forty women as nurſes to the ſick. They are lodged, cloathed, and fed for life, and have each ſomething allowed for pocket-money. They boys are taken in at eleven years of age, and go our at ſixteen either to ſea or trade. This hoſpital is ſupported by government, and by ſix-pence a month pai [...] out of every ſeaman's wages.
A very comfortable proviſion truly! Be kind enough to give me an account of ſome of the trading companies you mentioned.
If I explain one, you will underſtand the whole. I will then give you ſome idea of the Eaſt-India Company.
The Eaſt India Company, is a number of people in partnerſhip together for the purpoſe of trading to the Eaſt Indies. Government has granted them a charter for that purpoſe, on their paying the public four or five hundred thouſand pounds a year; ſo that you ſee how large their gains are. The Company's ſtock of money, with which they carry on their trade, conſiſt [...] of many millions, and their profits are ſuch, that after paying all expences and loſſes that occur in this joint trade, they get about twelve per cent for the money they employ. This partnerſhip is open and free to every one that will join them. There are every day perſons to be found that will ſell a ſhare of this great concern. A five hun⯑dred pounds ſhare will entitle a perſon to a voice or vote in [39]the concerns of the Company, which is principally con⯑ [...]ucted by thirteen directors, choſen annually out of the [...]artners or proprietors. This Company, ſince their [...]irſt eſtabliſhment, have driven the natives of Bengal- [...] [...]to the back part of the country, and are now poſſeſſed [...]f a great extent of territory, and they keep an army or the defence of it. The South Sea Company, the [...]uſſian Company, the Hudſon's Bay Company, and the [...]frican, are much upon the ſame plan, though not ſo [...]ich, nor trading with ſo large a ſtock. The value of each ſhare, or which is the ſame, of each one hundred [...]ounds ſtock, riſes and falls in proportion to the imagi⯑nary ſtate of the Company.
New you mention ſtock, I could wiſh to have the nature of government ſtock explained.
I muſt firſt tell you, that perſons who have money to ſpare, can, by lending it to thoſe who want [...]it, have five pounds annually for the uſe of every hun⯑dred pounds; but no more, as five per cent is the legal intereſt allowed by law; but, as the ſecurity ſuch perſons generally give for the return of the principal ſum lent, is not conſidered ſo good as government ſecurity; government, when in credit, can borrow money at leſs intereſt than five per cent. When government has eſtabliſhed a tax to pay the intereſt of the money they wiſh to borrow, they call upon the public to lend them the money, upon the faith and credit of the nation. When this ſum of money is advanced, it is called Stock, and government every half year pays the intereſt of this ſtock to the perſons poſſeſſed of it. Now ſuppoſe I lend government one hundred pounds, and wiſh ſome time afterwards to have it again, under an idea that government will never be able to repay me the principal; I cannot get this money back from the ſtate, but I offer my one hundred pounds ſtock to you. You tell me, the ſtate may be a bankrupt for any thing that is known to the contrary, and then it will not be worth one ſhil⯑ling; however, if I chuſe to ſell it you will give me ſixty pounds for it, which I agree to take. It is on this account that the ſtocks riſe and fall every day, accord⯑ing to the number of buyers or ſellers in the ſtock market. A piece of bad news will frighten people and [40]occaſion many ſellers and few buyers, of courſe [...] lower the value of ſtock, and a piece of good news [...] on the contrary, occaſion many buyers and few ſelle [...] of courſe raiſe the price of ſtock. The ſtocks of [...] trading companies riſe and fall in proportion wi [...] government ſtock. As the intereſt of money in [...] ſtock keeps pace with the intereſt in another. Th [...] ſtock is called the public funds.
Is the ſinking fund, a fund of the ſam [...] kind?
No; government always takes care [...] eſtabliſhing new taxes to anſwer every contingent [...] ⯑pence of the ſtate, and [...] generally contrive that th [...] taxes and other revenues of the crown ſhall exceed th [...] public expenditure or outgoings, ſo as to leave a ſurp [...] of gain every year. This ſurplus, or ſaving, is tr [...] ⯑ſured up for the purpoſe of paying off, at ſome futu [...] time, a part of the money they have before borrowe [...] and the money or ſtock ſo ſaved, or treaſured up, [...] called the ſinking fund, the deſign of it being to ſink [...] leſſen the public debt.
And do they often pay off the debts the [...] owe?
They will now and then pay off a few mi [...] ⯑lions by means of the money ſo ſaved; but they wi [...] never be able to pay off the whole; for owing to wa [...] and a variety of unforeſeen expences, the national debt amounts now to upwards of two hundred an [...] twenty millions of pounds; ſo that government ha [...] enough to do to find money to pay the intereſt of tha [...] debt, which intereſt at three per cent amounts annually to ſeven millions. It is this enormous debt that ha [...] injured the credit of the nation, for people begin [...] think now, that ſome time hence, ſo far from paying o [...] the principal, they will not be able to pay the intereſt and it is under this idea that one hundred pounds ſtock will not ſell for ſixty pounds.
How long has this great debt been growing
Not a hundred years.
What, Sir, are the navy bills?
When the commiſſioners of the navy pu [...] chaſe any naval ſtores, or employ any ſhipping to tran [...] ⯑port [41]proviſions, troops, &c. to diſtant parts, they pay [...] theſe things in paper-money, that is to ſay, they [...]e the ſeller an order upon the treaſurer of the navy [...] ſo much money, which order ſpecifies, that if the [...] is not paid in ſix months the holder of ſuch bill ſhall [...]ve four per cent intereſt on the ſum due, until it be [...]id. Theſe bills are generally ſold, but at a diſadvan⯑ [...]ge, one hundred pounds will ſcarce ſell for more than [...]ety pounds. But let us return to the ſubject we were [...]on.
I ſhould like to take a voyage in one of [...]oſe great ſhips.
Nothing would be more intereſting or [...]ely. The ſea is like a chain that unites all parts [...] the globe together. Without navigation, commerce [...]uld not exiſt, or, at leaſt, could not flouriſh. Every [...]e would find himſelf limited to the productions of his [...]n country. We ſhould be deprived of that infinite [...]ſiſtance we receive from foreigners, and could not [...]eld them any. Beſides, the ſea trains up a pro⯑ [...]gious quantity of ſeamen, which in time of war are [...]r principal defence. A great number are alſo em⯑ [...]oyed in our fiſheries, which is a further nurſery for [...]amen.
A ſea-faring life muſt, however, be attended [...]ith great dangers. Do not they dread ſtorms and [...]ipwreck?
The ſea has undoubtedly its dangers; but [...] the land exempt from them? Are we not every day [...]poſed to a thouſand accidents? Without the aid of an [...]-powerful hand, who could protect us? It is a conſi⯑ [...]ence in God, that leads ſeamen to brave the tempeſt, [...]e ſhallows, the ſand-banks, the currents, the gulfs, the [...]irates or robbers on the ſea, and all the dangers of the [...]eep. God preſerves mariners as he does other men; [...]nd, in fact, we hear of very few periſhing, in propor⯑ [...]on to the great numbers that follow a ſea-faring life: [...]ut one in a thouſand. If there was, they would not [...]e ſo ready as they are to embark. The ſea is, as it [...]ere, their natural element. They are not happy on [...]ore. Beſides the great ſums of money they gain at [42]ſea is an object, and they deſerve all they get for [...] riſks they run.
A whirlpool, they ſay, is a danger [...] thing; what is the nature of it?
It reſembles a whirlwind in the air: as [...] one is a circular current of air, that ſweeps things off [...] ground and takes them up aloft with it; a whirpool [...] circular current in ſome parts of the ſea that will dra [...] veſſel or any other thing within its reach, to the centre [...] middle of ſuch whirling current, and there ſuck it in [...] ſink it, ſo as, perhaps, to riſe no more. It is ſuppo [...] to be cauſed by a hole or cavern at the bottom of the [...] beneath it, by which the waters are conveyed throu [...] a ſubterraneous paſſage to ſome other part. This [...] ⯑duces the ſame effect, as appears in the top of a fu [...] when its contents are running into a bottle beneath, [...] a hole in the centre of the fluid, and a ſtrong ſucti [...] downwards.
I conceive many curious things are [...] with in long voyages.
Many. The ſeas are immenſe, and [...] whole globe may be traverſed by means of navigati [...]. The moſt powerful European nations are the Engli [...] ▪ the Dutch, the French, the Spaniards, and the Por [...] ⯑gueſe. Theſe have poſſeſſions beyond the ſeas. Iſla [...] have been diſcovered by ſubjects of European princ [...] and ſome of them continue under their dominions [...] this day. They have colonized them, that is, they ha [...] peopled them, by ſending inhabitants there from th [...] own countries. The vaſt tract of America, was peop [...] chiefly by this country, and was under Engliſh gove [...] ⯑ment until within theſe few years.
Were theſe places uninhabited that we [...] thus colonized?
No. They were inhabited, but by na [...] ſavages. Theſe the people who landed there, drove ba [...] into the interior parts of the country, and when th [...] had built a town, they defended it from the incurſio [...] of the natives.
But can this violent ſeizure of land reconciled with juſtice?
Certainly. All territory was originally, [...] [43]qui [...]red by conqueſt. This gave riſe to the ſeveral ſtates [...]on the earth. And when a number of people come [...]d form a ſettlement upon a tract of land which the [...]tives have no other claim on, than an unreſtrained [...]erty of ranging it for food, it ſuch ſettlers put them the way of living more comfortably, and gratify them [...]th a thouſand indulgences, which otherwiſe they [...]uld never have heard of; inſtead of having reaſon to [...]mplain, they would, in my opinion, have cauſe to [...]eſs themſelves at the fortunate event.
It is to theſe diſtant parts, then, and to the different [...]ctions of the world that Europeans tranſport merchan⯑ [...]ſe, the growth of their reſpective countries, bringing [...]ck, in exchange, wealth of every kind, gold, ſilver, [...]ecious ſtones, ſkins, cottons, ſugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, [...]chineal, indigo, pepper, cinnamon, tobacco, and any other things which we have. We trade to the [...]aſt of Guinea for negroes, that is, for black ſlaves, [...]d carry them to the plantations abroad, where they are [...]ld and employed in agriculture, and where inhumanity [...]eats them little better than brutes. In ſailing to theſe [...]imates we ſee remarkable things and the different pro⯑ [...]ctions of the countries. We become acquainted with [...]eir manners, their cuſtoms, their religion and form of [...]overnment; in ſhort, we acquire an infinity of know⯑ [...]dge no leſs uſeful than curious. But let us return to [...]ommerce by land.
Merchants ſeldom go to ſea themſelves, they tranſact [...] the buſineſs at home, and ſhips convey their merchan⯑ [...]iſe out and home. Was you in the counting-houſe of capital merchant you would be aſtoniſhed to ſee, that [...]ithout going out of that room, they tranſact buſineſs in [...]ll parts of the world. Some employ the ſhips of others; [...]thers have ſhips of their own. Commerce in its utmoſt [...]xtent is a prodigious thing. You may judge of its [...]xtent by the poſtage of letters which merchants annually [...]ay. There are houſes in London, that is, merchants whoſe letters coſt them upwards of ſix or ſeven hundred [...]ounds a year, and who will return more than ſeven or [...]ight hundred thouſand pounds annually, I mean, do buſineſs to that amount. Merchandiſe carried out of [44]England to foreign parts are called Exports, [...] brought in, Imports.
Excluſive then of the imports, what [...] principal branch of our commerce?
Manufactures are the moſt conſiderable of Engliſh commerce, and the manufacture of woo [...] cloths the principal. To encourage it, government [...] obliged every perſon to be buried in a woolen [...] under the penalty of five pounds. But beſides branch of commerce, we have a manufactory of eſtabliſhed in Spiral-Fields, London; of cottons, vel [...] muſlins, and a variety of other linens painted and [...] at Mancheſter; of ribbands, at Coventry; of ſtocki [...] at Nottingham and other places; of glaſs, at Newca [...] and of hardware of all ſorts, at Birmingham, Sheff [...] and Leeds; whereas Scotland and Ireland are ch [...] diſtinguiſhed for linen. As France and Spain are [...] ⯑nowned for their wines, England is remarked for its [...] of which almoſt every county boaſts of taking lead.
I preſume the great towns generally away with the principal part of commerce.
Pretty much ſo. Where there is the adv [...] ⯑tage of a good ſea port, there is much buſineſs can on, at leaſt to foreign parts: for example, at Lond [...], Briſtol, and Liverpool, but the manufactures are chi [...] eſtabliſhed in cheap countries; and ſuch as are wro [...] by fire, in places abounding with coals.
What is the difference between a whole and a retail buſineſs?
A wholeſale dealer is uſually a merchan [...] a manufacturer, and ſells only to thoſe who ſell ag [...] of courſe deals out his goods in large quantities, an [...] contented with ſmaller gains; whereas a retail tra [...] parcels out his goods to the conſumer, and in ſuch ſo quantities as he may have occaſion for.
Which is the moſt profitable then, a wh [...] ſale buſineſs or a retail one?
A wholeſale buſineſs is generally the [...] lucrative, for though wholeſale dealers get leſs p [...] upon every hundred pounds worth of goods they [...] yet as their returns in trade are very large, and th [...] [45]dealings very conſiderable, they are generally large [...]ers upon the whole; but they are at the ſame time [...]oſed to greater loſſes, and ſuch a trade requires a [...]e ſum of money to carry it on. But a retail trader [...] has a great deal of buſineſs and many cuſtomers, [...], in common, a great deal of money, and often [...]re than many wholeſale dealers; becauſe he has a [...]ater profit, and his money is quicker returned, not [...]ng obliged to give ſo long credit, nor riſk ſuch large [...]s. We have ſeen retail traders get very great [...]tunes, but not generally in ſmall towns; for where [...]re are but few inhabitants and many ſhopkeepers, [...] trade is too much divided to admit of large gains.
It is owing to great loſſes I apprehend, that [...] ſee ſo many bankrupts.
Every ſituation of life, my good friend, has diſgraces; you will be better acquainted with this as [...] advance in life. The riſk of loſs I confeſs is a diſa⯑ [...]eable thing in trade. When a man cannot pay his [...]ts, he is liable to be arreſted and ſent to priſon, and [...]en once he is ſuppoſed to be deficient in this reſpect, [...] his creditors, fearful of loſing their money, apply to [...]m for it; this frequently occaſions him to ſecrete him⯑ [...]f and ſhut up his ſhop. Such a man is then ſaid to [...]l, or be a bankrupt, for his creditors then ſeize upon [...] he has and divide his property among them in pro⯑ [...]rtion to the ſeveral ſums he owes. Sometimes the [...]editors will get half their demands, ſometimes a fourth [...]rt, and ſometimes not ſo much; but if, on examining his [...]counts, it appears that he has acted fairly, they [...]ſtomarily give him a general diſcharge, which is called [...]ning his certifitate; and ſuffer him to begin trade again, [...]he can, unmoleſted.
The accidental burning of a tradeſman's [...]atehouſe, or the loſs of a ſhip load of goods at ſea, may [...]in the faireſt dealer unexpectedly.
There are precautions againſt ſuch unforeſſeen [...]ſſes. In London there are aſſurance-offices, that for [...] ſmall annual premium, will inſure any man's property [...]om loſs by fire or the dangers of the ſea. Theſe con⯑ [...] of a number of opulent men, whoſe fortunes are [...]ſponſible and adequate for any ſums they inſure. [46]tradeſmen can have their houſes and goods inſured three or four ſhillings in the hundred pounds, [...] is, on paying three of four ſhillings a year for e [...] hundred pounds they think proper to inſure; ſhould fire accidentally deſtroy their property, theſe offices [...] make good their loſſes as far as the hundred pou [...] they have inſured; and they may inſure to any among
In like manner may ſhips be inſured during the voy [...] they are about to make, and that for about three or fo [...] pounds in the hundred pounds. The perſons w [...] do this are called under-writers. Nay, theſe aſſuranc [...] offices will go further, they will inſure any man's [...] for a ſum of money in proportion to his age and [...] chance there is of his dying. Suppoſe a man was to gi [...] one thouſand pounds for one hundred pounds per ann [...] for his life; that his family may not loſe the benefit [...] the money ſo laid out, he can, by paying to ſome of the offices twenty, thirty, or forty pounds a year more [...] leſs out of the one hundred pounds, leave the thouſand poun [...] at his death to whom he pleaſes, for die whe [...] he will, theſe offices will pay the money.
Are they not often ſufferers on this a [...] count?
No. When it is conſidered how many perſons property they inſure, the chance is much in the favor, of courſe their loſſes are not ſo great as to ma [...] them loſers in the whole; for they make their calcu [...] ⯑tions ſo, that the premiums or rewards they receive for inſuring, are more than ſufficient to make good every lo [...] they are likely to ſuſtain.
Where a man can inſure his property [...] this manner, it is unpardonable in him to fail; as it mu [...] be owing to ſome neglect or inattention of his own.
It is too frequently ſo. Men too often wi [...] to get rich on a ſudden, they therefore undertake mo [...] buſineſs, and riſk more money than their fortunes will enable them to do; and to do this, they run in debt for a variety of articles, which perhaps afterwards they cannot ſell. Sometimes they will pay too little atten⯑tion to their accounts, and from an ignorance of their ſituation will ſpend every year more than they ca [...] afford. Some men again will break fraudulently, that [47]will take up goods upon credit, abuſe the confidence [...] men put in them, and ſpend the money ſuch goods [...] for, in extravagant living, to the injury, and often the [...], of thoſe who truſt them.
Was I a tradeſman, I could eaſily find a [...]hod not to loſe any thing by bankrupts.
If you would teach that method to others, [...] would do them a great ſervice. What method [...]ld you take?
I would trade only for ready money; then [...]ould loſe nothing.
Was every one to do ſo, he could not loſe; [...] that is impracticable. Credit is the very ſoul of [...]de, which could not ſubſiſt without it. There is no [...]aler's fortune ſo large, but that he carries on more [...]de than he can immediately pay for; of courſe, he obliged to have credit. Many a man deals largely on credit without any real fortune of his own; beſides often happens, that a man would not know what to [...]y for goods when he buys. The ſeller may not be able [...]mediately to aſcertain their value, and the buyer may [...] have had an opportunity to inſpect the quality of the [...]ods bought; or they may be purchaſed at a conſide⯑ [...]ble diſtance from the buyer; perhaps in the country, at a ſea-port. In which caſes the money is afterwards be remitted, or conveyed to the ſeller. Do you know [...]e nature of paper-money?
Indeed I do not.
You know the nature of a bank note, which a written promiſe of the governors of the Bank of [...]gland to pay a certain ſum there ſpecified, when [...]ed for. This was contrived for the convenience of [...]de, it not being troubleſome to carry, and can be [...]nveyed by the poſt in a letter. For the ſame purpoſe [...]en in buſineſs inſtead of paying money for goods, will [...]quently give promiſſory notes of hand to pay the [...]oney in one, two, three or four months, more or leſs, in [...]rds to this effect, "Three months after date, I pro⯑ [...]iſe to pay to Mr.—, or his order, the ſum of— [...]lue received." Theſe notes are negotiable, that is, [...]ll paſs current from one to another, the whole three [...]onths they have to run, when the poſſeſſor of the bill, [48]when payable, carries it to the houſe of the perſon [...] firſt gave the note for payment.
And ſuppoſe he will not pay it?
He then loſes his credit, and the hold of the note obliges him to pay it by law, with all [...] expences attending the recovery.
And what is a bill of exchange?
This is contrivance to pay money in a [...] diſtant part. Here is a merchant in London, [...] example, that trades with a merchant at. Amſterd [...] ▪ Suppoſe A. wants to pay one hundred pounds to B [...] friend in Amſterdam; A. applies to this merchant London, pays the hundred pounds to him, and begs [...] to remit it to Amſterdam, he accordingly gives A. a [...] of exchange, or draft upon his correſpondent there words to this effect; "At ſight pay to A or his ord [...] one hundred pounds, and place it to the account yours, &c." At then puts his name upon the back of [...] bill, which is called indorſing it, and ſends it to [...] friends B. by the poſt. This indorſement intimates to [...] merchant a Amſterdam, when brought to him for p [...] ⯑ment, that A has authoriſed it, and the money is imm [...] ⯑diately paid. By this means too, the merchant at A [...] ⯑ſterdam conveys one hundred pounds to the merchant London, ſo that it is a convenience on all ſides. T [...] is called a foreign bill of exchange; when ſuch bills [...] between traders in the ſame country, they are call inland bills.
[...]
[...]
From your account of trade, it [...] buſy pleaſant life, and [...] grow rich [...].
It is, perhaps, the readieſt road to acqui [...] competency, and without being obliged to any [...] ▪ Say what you will of trade, it muſt be honourable, at is pleaſant to owe our bread to no one but oneſelf could mention twenty examples of very rapid form made in trade from very ſmall beginnings.
What is the beſt kind of commerce to deal in?
That depends upon opinion and talents. [...] as I to chooſe a trade, it ſhould be where the articles [...]e and fall conſiderably in price.
And for what reaſon?
Becauſe a clever ſenſible man, who knows [...] profeſſion, may make his fortune ſuddenly in ſuch a [...]de. For example; I would buy but ſmall quantity of [...]h an article when it was dear, becauſe if it fell in its [...]ce, I ſhould then loſe but little; but when it was cap, I would lay out all the money I could, and keep [...]ill it was dearer, and by felling it then, I might, per⯑ [...], get treble the ſum I paid for it, eſpecially if the [...]rchandiſe I bought would keep. This is what tradeſ⯑ [...] call ſpeculation, buying on foreſight. Sometimes, a [...]ſon has been injured by this ſcheming, (for no one [...] anſwer for events;) but not very often.
But it is time to think of returning home.
We are juſt got to the banks of the river. [...]hat a quantity of boats! What a buſtle on the quay! [...]me loading and others unloading. From whence [...]ne theſe ſawn planks?
They are fir planks or deal, and come from [...]lland. The Dutch bring them from Denmark and [...]er northern countries. Probably ſome of theſe larger [...]els are laden with wool from Spain. Further, are veſ⯑ [...] laden with cod from Newfoundland, herrings from [...]etland, oranges and lemons from Spain, ſugar and rum [...]m Jamaica, ſilk from Turkey, rice from Carolina, [...]s from Canada, brandy from Flanders, claret and [...]gundy from France, and port-wine from Portugal. [...] is, my dear Eugenius, the train and chain of [...]mmerce; one may ſay, it is an immenſe and perpetual [...]eam, which flows from city to city, from kingdom to kingdom, and from one end of the world to the other. [...]u ſee from its giving employment and maintenance to [...]uſands, how great an object it is to a kingdom, and [...]ides this, there is not an article that does not pay ſome [...]ſiderable duty or tribute to the ſtate. It is an exten⯑ [...] commerce, joined to good huſbandry, that has [...]dered England ſo numerous, ſo rich, and ſo flouriſh.
DISCOURSE VI. ON THE OBJECTS OF NATURE.
[50]IT is now three weeks, Sir, ſince we pa [...] viſit to our friends in the country, a [...] from that time we have not been a day out of the city I long to be there again. This fine weather is a [...] ⯑tation. Winter will ſoon ſhut us up within our walls.
The weather theſe fifteen days paſt [...] been too cool for a country excurſion, but as it [...] ſeems fine, we will profit by it: we will go an ſee [...] the corn looks after ſo much rain; for when it is cut, good deal of rain will make it ſhoot.
And when the wheat ſhoots, is it not ſo goo [...]
No. It loſes in its weight, of courſe, it d [...] not produce ſo great a quantity of flour; beſides, [...] flour from ſuch wheat is not of ſo good a quality. It the ſame with oats, and other grain with which we f [...] cattle. If it is injured by too much wet, it is not nouriſhing, nor will it keep ſo long, as if got in in a [...] ſeaſon.
This is one reaſon then that we dr [...] continual rains and ſtormy, tempeſtuous weather: it does a great deal of damage. But whence ariſe th [...] effects? Why does God permit it? What is the ca [...] of the variation of the ſeaſons? What is the uſe of [...] ſtars above us? You ſee, Sir, I am not aſhamed of [...] ignorance. There are a thouſand things in nature [...] I do not comprehend. If you remember, you once p [...] ⯑miſed to explain them to me; ſhall I requeſt you to it now?
With pleaſure. I admire your curioſ [...] ▪ It is certainly pleaſing to inquire into the works of [...] ⯑ture. You have opened to me a wonderfull ſcen [...] things, and to the beſt of my abilities, I will give an inſight into them.
To make you acquainted with natural hiſtory, [...] muſt proceed with a degree of order. Let us firſt [51]back to the origin of the world; I do not mean the hiſ⯑tory of the creation, that you have a knowledge of al⯑ready: all that is neceſſary to remember now, is, that Moſes, the author of that hiſtory, was not deceived, having received his intelligence from God himſelf, with whom he converſed face to face. All that God thought proper to communicate to Moſes and the prophets by inſpiration, we call Revelation. His holy Spirit en⯑lightened their minds, and taught them ſuch things as they wiſhed to know, and to teach to others; ſo that men who would ſpeak of the origin of the world, without an attention to revelation, let them be as wiſe as they may, can only ſet forth falſe ſyſtems, which de⯑ſtroy one another, and are little elſe than dreams of the imagination; whereas, by the recital of Moſes, ſo ſimple, and at the ſame time ſo ſublime, the formation of the univerſe unfolds itſelf to us in a very ſatisfactory man⯑ner. We will contemplate then, to day, the works of the Lord, the ſole author and preſerver of nature: And we will firſt turn our thoughts to the heavens, which declare his power and his glory. What other hand, what other force than his could ſupport, in the infinite expanſe above, thoſe great globes which we fee? What other wiſdom could regulate their courſe and preſerve that regularity, with which they have rolled in that immenſe ſpace for ſix thouſand years?
It is a ſpectacle truly worthy of the great⯑neſs of God. Of all the havenly bodies, the ſun ſeems the fineſt and the moſt ſtriking.
It does. It is on this account, that many [...]idolatrous nations, dazzled with the brilliancy of its [...]ays, and amazed at the influence of its heat on the pro⯑ductions of nature, take it for a God, and adore it. There was a famous temple at Heliopolis, dedicated to the worſhip of the ſun. Many, who have not re⯑ceived the benefit of revelation, to whom the goſpel is unknown, remain, at this day, in that deplorable igno⯑rance.
Shall I trouble you, Sir, to explain the na⯑ture of the ſun, moon and ſtars? I am aſhamed to know [...]o little concerning them.
It would be uſeleſs to you to give you an ac⯑count [52]of the different ſyſtems which celebrated [...] have invented for the ſtructure of the heavens; I will only inform you of that which is now univerſally ad⯑mitted. It is the ſyſtem of Copernicus, a native of Thorn in Pruſſia, improved by Sir Iſaac Newton of England.
Except the ſun and moon, we, in general, call all thoſe celeſtial globes, ſtars, which we ſee ſcattered up and down in the immenſity of the heavens; many of them are luminous bodies, that is to ſay, give light of them⯑ſelves; but there are ſome that are not luminous, but opake, and give light only, by reflection from the ſun [...] that is to ſay, the ſun ſhines upon them, and they throw back his light, in the ſame manner as we ſee the win⯑dows of a houſe frequently do, towards the evening when the ſun is ſetting. Of this latter kind is the moon and the planets.
I wiſh, Sir, you would begin with the ſun.
I ought indeed, the ſun being apparently a [...] a torch to the univerſe, or the principle of all light▪ Would you believe it, Eugenius, that there are a prod [...] ⯑gious quantity of ſuns?
How, a quantity! And do we ſee more tha [...] one now?
No. But in the night we diſcern ſtars in numerable, and philoſophers aſſert, that they are a [...] ſuns, probably larger than the one that gives us light i [...] the day. If ſo, at what an enormous diſtance from th [...] earth muſt theſe ſuns be placed, for the farther off a [...] object is, the ſmaller it appears; and if we look at th [...] ſtars through a teleſcope, which brings them ſome mi [...] ⯑lions of miles nearer to the eye, they do not app [...] larger. Let us ſuppoſe a bullet, ſhot from a cannon [...] [...]wards the neareſt ſtar, and to go at the rate of 480 mi [...] an hour, it would be 7,600,000 years in going the [...] ▪ The ſtars are fixed, that is, they occupy conſtantly [...] ſame ſpace in the firmament. They have no moti [...] but a rotatory one, like a wheel round its axle. We [...] ⯑lieve them from their twinkling to be of the ſame [...] ⯑ture with the ſun.
If the ſtars are fixed, what are thoſe wh [...] we obſerve occaſionally to ſhoot and fall?
This is one of thoſe optic illuſions that de⯑ [...]eive our eyes. The falling ſtar, as you call it, is no other than a meteor reſembling a ſtar, and at no very great diſtance from us; it is formed from certain exha⯑lations that riſe in the air, ſuddenly take fire, and ſoon [...]iſappear and is of a ſimilar kind with what is called [...]n ignus fatuus, or a will o' the wiſp.
I have heard frequently of that, but never [...]ighly underſtood it.
That alſo is a meteor formed of a like mat⯑ter, and is chiefly ſeen at night in marſhy places. The country people call it, jack in the lanthorn, and ſuppoſe it miſleads the traveller frequently into thoſe bogs over which it hovers.
A childiſh tale I ſuppoſe. There is another [...]minous appearance I have noticed, I believe it is [...]alled the northern lights.
Yes; the Aurora Borealis or northern dawn, [...] an extraordinary meteor, a luminous appearance, [...]ewing itſelf in the night-time in the northern part of the [...]eavens; it appears commonly in the form of an arch, [...]iefly in ſpring and autumn, after a dry year, but ge⯑ [...]erally tranſparent, ſo as to ſee through it. Many have [...]tempted to account for it, but in vain; it is, however, [...]lowed to be a kind of electric fire, iſſuing from the air, [...] are thoſe faint ſtreams of light that frequently flaſh [...] the heavens at night, and which are called Lights in [...]e air.
Of what nature, Sir, is the ſun?
An immenſe ocean of fluid fire, which never [...]nſumes. We ſuppoſe the ſun to be a globe, becauſe his round; and to be fire, becauſe it gives light and [...]at as fire does; we ſuppoſe it fluid, like water, be⯑cauſe ſpots are obſerved on it that change their ſituation [...]d ſhape. Theſe ſpots are thought to be bodies diffe⯑ [...]nt from the nature of the ſun, floating in its ſub⯑ [...]ce, and thrown upon its ſurface like the ſcum upon [...]ing oil. With reſpect to the ſize of this globe of [...], it is according to the calculation of philoſophers but a million of times as large as that of the earth.
Conceive now an immenſe round ſpace of the hea⯑ [...]s almoſt infinite, in the centre of which the Creator [54]has placed the ſun. There it is fixed, except that it rolls continually like a wheel round its axis, with an inconceivable ſwiftneſs, but which, on account of its enormous ſize, it is twenty-five days and a half in do⯑ing, and notwithſtanding this, as its circumference is 2,398,000 miles, it muſt turn at the rate of 47,019 miles a day to perform its revolution in that time. To give you an idea of the diſtance of the ſun from us, which, according to allowed calculations, is 80,000,000 of miles off, were we to travel to the ſun, and at the rate of 100 miles a day, we ſhould be 2090 years in going.
In this immenſe ſpace, where the ſun is fixed, there are certain planets that at different diſtances revolve or roll in circles round him.
What are theſe planets?
There are ſix of the firſt order; their name [...] are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa⯑turn. They all move round the ſun one way, from weſt to eaſt. Mercury makes its revolution round th [...] ſun in about three months, Venus in ſeven, the Earth in twelve, which is one year, Mars in two years, Jupi⯑ter in twelve, and Saturn in thirty years. Theſe pla⯑nets are opake ſold globes, like the earth, and giv [...] light, as I told you, by reflection, from the ſun. They may be known from the ſtars by their never twinkling
Theſe planets have alſo a rotatory motion round the own axes, as a wheel turns round its axle, which revo⯑lution they perform in certain ſtated times. For exam⯑ple, the earth, while it employs a year in making its re⯑volution round the ſun, turns round its own axis ever [...] twenty-four hours, and that from weſt to eaſt. I ſha [...] not mention the times the five other planets take in pe [...] ⯑forming their revolutions, as I would not burthen you memory with unneceſſary things.
Are there no more than theſe ſix planets▪
There are ten others of a ſecond orde [...] which are called Satellites. Theſe attend upon th [...] reſpective planets. The earth has one called the moon Jupiter has four, and Saturn five: that is to ſay, Jupiter has four moon revolving round it, and Saturn five d [...] ⯑ing the time they themſelves revolve round the ſun?
Pray, Sir, what is a Comet?
A Comet is a kind of planet vulgarly called a [...]lazing ſtar, from its having a fiery tail. It is diſtin⯑ [...]uiſhed by a long train or trail of light, in a direction [...]ppoſite to the ſun. We are not certain how many there [...]re; we know only that they deſcribe a prodigious [...]ngthened circuit round the ſun, which makes them ap⯑pear at certain ſtated times once in a number of years, [...]eventy or eighty. Comets, when viewed through a [...]leſcope, have a moſt awful appearance, being large [...]obular bodies with long blazing tails, and ſomething [...]ke fiery darts or ſtreams of burning rays about the [...]obe itſelf. Various have been the conjectures of what nature they are, but none to any purpoſe.
I think you ſaid, Sir, that the planets are not [...]minous bodies, and of courſe do not give light from themſelves, like the ſun.
I did. They are dark, opake, and more or [...]ſs solid bodies, like the globe of the earth. That [...]e of them which the ſun ſhines on, reflects a light [...]ck, which we ſee when the ſun is not viſible ſo as to [...]lipſe their light. Were we in one of the planets, the [...]eth would appear to us, then, as the planets do to us [...]w; that is, like a ſtar.
Permit me, Sir, to ſay, that this ſyſtem ap⯑ [...]ars very ſingular; you advance that the ſun is a fixed [...]dy, except its turning round its own axis, and that the [...]rth and other planets make a periodical revolution [...]und it, from weſt to eaſt. Now, Sir, if we believe our [...]n eyes, we are taught the contrary, for the ſun ſeems [...] move, and the earth to ſtand ſtill. Does not the [...] riſe every day in the eaſt, and ſet in the weſt?
In appearance it does, but not ſo in reality, [...]e earth, as I obſerved to you, beſides its annual revo⯑ [...]tion round the ſun, turns like a wheel round its own [...]s, every twenty-four hours, and by this wonderful [...]ntrivance every inhabitant on the earth, is, by rotation, [...]eſented to the ſun, and enjoys the benefit of its ſalutary [...]nence. When this motion brings any part of the [...]th within view of the ſun, it is called day, but on [...]t part where the ſun does not ſhine, it is called night. [...]us, in every twenty-four hours is day and night al⯑ [...]nately occaſioned all over the world. This motion of [56]the earth, being from weſt to eaſt, cauſes an apparent motion of the ſun the contrary way, and other hea⯑venly bodies, that is, from eaſt to weſt; for the fixed ſtars appear to us, to riſe and ſet as does the ſun.
And how is this accounted for?
Becauſe we are not ſenſible of our own mo⯑tion. You muſt have taken notice, that when we were in a boat, the ſhore we looked at and every thing upon that ſhore, ſeemed to move the contrary way to that we were going; for ſuch is the wiſe direction of Providence, that partaking of the motion of the earth in common with the earth, we are not ſenſible of its moving, and of courſe are led to ſuppoſe that the objects move, on which we look. The earth whirls round at the rate of 900 miles an hour, and were we to be ſenſible of its motion the conſequences would be very bad. Indeed, every thing upon it, partakes of the common motion of the globe itſelf, and is not any way affected by that mo⯑tion, in the ſame manner as no alteration takes place in any thing on board a ſhip, let the ſhip move as faſt as it will. A bottle of water, for example, hung up, or board a veſſel, to empty itſelf, drop by drop, into ano⯑ther bottle placed under it, with a narrow neck, the drops will all fall directly into the bottle, though the ſhip ſhall have run many inches whilſt the drop was in the air.
How, Sir, are the ſeaſons accounted for▪
As the hours and days are accounted for by the motion of the earth round its axis; ſo are the months and ſeaſons by its revolution round the ſun▪ It makes its great circuit once in twelve months. A [...] as the ſun is not immediately in the centre of that great circle which the earth deſcribes, it muſt happen, that in its courſe, it is at one time of the year nearer th [...] ſun than at another. When it is fartheſt from the ſ [...] it is our ſummer; when neareſt, winter; and whe [...] between the two extremes, ſpring and autumn.
How is that poſſible? The nearer th [...] earth is to the ſun, one would ſuppoſe, the more it muſt feel its heat; now we feel leſs of its heat in winter than in ſummer?
This ariſes from the poſition the earth [57] [...] with reſpect to the ſun. When the ſun is fartheſt [...]rom the earth, as in ſummer, it is over our heads, and its rays fall down perpendicularly upon us, and in that direction, a great many more rays fall on any par⯑ricular ſpot, than when they fall on us in an oblique direction, or come upon us ſideways, as they do in win⯑ter, the ſun being then apparently lower in the hea⯑vens. Beſides, in ſummer, then ſun though further off, is more hours with us, every day than in winter; of courſe the longer it ſhines on us, though perhaps not ſo hot, the more it warms the earth, than a greater heat would [...]o in winter in fewer hours.
Therefore, as the earth is round, it is plain to ſee, [...]rom its daily and annual motions, that the ſeaſon, and the days and nights, muſt vary on the different parts of the globe. It is ſummer in one part when it is winter [...]n another; and the days increaſe and decreaſe accor⯑ding to the time that the ſun is in view. In ſome parts of the globe, there is only one night and one day throughout the year, that is, the ſun is ſeen for ſix months in the year, and is not ſeen for the other ſix; in theſe places, the ſun never riſes very high, but yet ſets [...]ot during the whole ſix months, but ſeems to go round and round us; during the other ſix months it never [...]iſes. The Greenlanders are in this ſituation, who ge⯑nerally quit the iſland when the ſun leaves it.
Talking of the revolutions of the earth round the ſun, leads me to ſay ſomething to you of the late alteration of our Style. Have you a proper knowledge of it?
I muſt confeſs my ignorance.
The I will explain it to you. Though ge⯑nerally ſpeaking, we ſay, that the earth takes a year to [...]ake her circuit round the ſun, yet the exact time ſhe [...]akes is 365 days 6 hours, wanting ſome minutes; now, [...]s our year is divided into 365 days, in four years we [...]hould loſe nearly a day, if we did not add it occa⯑ſionally to the calendar. To remedy this, every fourth [...]ear, in the ſhorteſt month, February, we add a day, [...]aking it to conſiſt of twenty-nine days inſtead of twenty-eight, and this fourth year is called leap-year; [...]ut by this occaſional addition of a day, we gain forty-four [58]minutes every year; which in 133 years amount to one day, and in a greater number of years we had gained eleven days; government, therefore, in order to retrench the time ſo gained, to prevent any change of ſeaſons by ſuch acquiſition, and to regulate our year by that of other countries, who had before take the ſame ſtep, thought it neceſſary to throw out the eleven days from the ca⯑lendar in September 1752, and to call the next day af⯑ter the ſecond, the fourteenth. Some years hence it will be neceſſary to take ſome ſuch ſtep again.
If you remember, you promiſed, when you had explained the earth's motion, to give me an ac⯑count of the time-keeper for aſcertaining the Longitude.
I did; and I cannot do it at a better time than now.
The earth's ſurface is divided into 360 equal parts, by imaginary lines drawn from north to ſouth, which are called degrees of longitude. The earth's daily revo⯑lution round its axis eaſtward, as I told you, is per⯑formed in twenty-four hours, conſequently, in that time the places under each of thoſe imaginary lines or de⯑grees, become in turn oppoſite to the ſun, that is, the ſun is, as it were, over the heads of perſons dwelling or being in thoſe places, and it is then noon or twelve o'clock at ſuch places. Now from the time any one o [...] thoſe lines paſſes the ſun, till the next line paſſes, it mu [...] be juſt four minutes; for twenty-four hours, which i [...] 1440 minutes, divided by 360, will give four minutes ſo that for every degree of longitude we ſail to the eaſt we, as it were, meet the ſun, and noon will be four mi⯑nutes ſooner than it would have been, had we continues where we were; and, on the contrary, if we ſail weſt⯑ward, we, as it were, retire from the ſun, and noon will b [...] four minutes later. Now, if when it is exactly noon [...] the place we ſail from, which may be known by th [...] ſun, we ſet the time-keeper at twelve o'clock, and ſa [...] eaſtward; if this time-keeper does not vary, it will al⯑ways tell us the hour it is, at the place we ſailed from if upon examination ſome time afterwards we find it t [...] be exactly noon, or twelve o'clock, when the time-keeper points to ten in the morning, it is evident that we a [...] two hours eaſtward of the place we ſailed from, whi [...] [59] [...]s equal to 1800 miles, reckoning ſixty miles to a degree; for two hours is thirty times four minutes, and each four minutes being a degree, two hours is exactly thirty degrees, or 1800 miles.
You have explained it very clearly. Now, Sir, for the Latitude.
The Latitude is the diſtance of any one place from the Equator, or a ſuppoſed line, drawn round the globe of the earth, in the middle between the two poles or ends; that is, the diſtance from north to ſouth. To have a proper idea of this, you muſt conſider the earth as round or globular, and that there is a fixed ſtar in the north part of the heavens, called the Pole-ſtar. When we are at the Equator, or middle of the earth, this pole-ſtar appears level with the ground we ſtand on; but as we travel towards it, that is, to the north, this ſtar is obſerved to riſe higher in the heavens; but were we to turn our backs upon it and travel to the ſouthward, that is, from it, we ſhould ſoon loſe ſight of it, as the roundneſs or ſwell of the earth would hide it from our view. In this caſe we ſhould ſee a variety of ſtars, that, in our preſent northern hemiſphere or ſituation, we can never ſee; and the more we continued our journey ſouthwards, the more new ſtars would ariſe [...]n view; but on our return towards the north, we ſhould loſe them again. Now, as when placed in the Equator or the middle of the earth, the pole-ſtar appears on a level with the ground we ſtand on, ſo as we travel northward, or towards it, it appears to riſe higher in the heavens, and by meaſuring its height, which is done by an inſtrument made for that purpoſe, called a [...]uadrant, we can tell exactly how far we have travelled northward, for every degree the pole-ſtar is riſen in the heavens, we have travelled ſixty miles from the Equator, ſo that when we arrive in England, and meaſure the height of this ſtar, and find it fifty-one degrees and a half; which is the height of the pole-ſtar with us, we know that we are about 3100 miles diſtant from the middle of the earth.
I will endeavour to explain this better by compariſon. Suppoſe the weathercock on a church-ſteeple to be ſeen [...]ſt above the top of a hill; as we riſe the hill, part of [60]the ſteeple will appear, and the weather-cock will ap⯑parently riſe higher. In like manner, the higher we get and the more we get over the hill, the higher will the weather-cock appear, as the body of the church will he then ſeen under it. Let the weather-cock be now the north or pole-ſtar, and the hill, the ſwell or rotundity of the earth, as the further we advance upon the hill, and travel towards the weather-cock, the higher it ſeems to be, ſo the further we travel towards the ſtar, and riſe over the rotundity of the earth, the higher will the pole-ſtar appear in the heavens, and of courſe, the height of the ſtar will meaſure the length of way we have travelled.
The compariſon is a very juſt one, and an⯑ſwers the purpoſe you deſigned by it. You ſaid, Sir, that the Moon was a ſecondary planet to the earth, and not only revolved round it, but continued ſo re⯑volving, during the earth's whole revolution round the ſun?
I did.
Be kind enough to explain to me the ap⯑pearances of the moon. What are thoſe ſpots we ob⯑ſerve in it?
The Moon is an opake, ſolid body like the earth, and all the other planets. It is, like them alſo a globe, about fifty times ſmaller than the earth, from which it is diſtant about 240,000 miles. Being an opake body it gives no light of itſelf, but what it reflects back whilſ [...] the ſun ſhines upon it. When in her courſe round the earth, ſhe happens to be between the earth and the ſun, as at new moon, the ſide on which the ſun ſhine is turned from the earth, and we do not ſee it, Whe [...] it is in the oppoſite part of the heavens, and we a [...] between the moon and the ſun, as at full moon, th [...] ſun ſhines full upon that ſide that is turned towards u [...] and we ſee its full face: when it is in the midway be⯑tween both, we ſee only half the globe of the moo [...] enlightened, this is in its firſt and third quarters, wh [...] it appears horned and what we call gibbous or hump⯑backed, according to the quantity of the enlightened pa [...] we can perceive. Obſerve, the horns of the moon al⯑ways [61]turned from the ſun. It is thus we account for [...]s different appearances throughout the month.
As to the ſpots we ſee ſo diſtinctly upon its face or [...]ſk, when viewed through a teleſcope, they ſeem to [...]e the effects of water and hills upon the ſurface of its [...]obe; hence we preſume it is a ſolid body like the earth, [...]d may poſſibly be inhabited, but it appearing to [...]ve no atmoſphere, the people there, if any, do not [...]eathe. Indeed, all the planets, for any thing that we [...]ay know, may be inhabited, and each ſtar may be a ſun, [...]e centre of a ſyſtem of worlds. This opinion does not [...] all interfere with the almighty power of the Creator, [...]o may, according to his pleaſure, create as many [...]orlds, as he forms grains of ſand.
It is a pity that no one has taken a jour⯑ [...]y to the moon, to know what is doing there.
We hope one day to be ſatisfied in that [...]rticular. A very curious perſon, examining the moon [...]rough the great teleſcope at the obſervatory at Paris, [...]ought he ſaw in it an animal that moved. Struck with [...]e ſight, and not doubting of the fact, he called others [...]he witneſs of it; they ran, and examined, and ſaw, as [...]hey ſuppoſed, an animal that ſeemed to walk upon the [...]ce of the moon. But it was very far diſtant from that.
What was it then?
The teleſcope was twenty feet long, and [...]e perſon had conveyed a mouſe into it, purpoſely [...]lay the fool with this obſerver.
It was a pleaſant trick. But what are the [...]ſes of the Eclipſes? You ſee, Sir, that if I know no⯑ [...]ng more, I know at leaſt how to aſk queſtion.
It is a proof of your judgment, and I am [...]aſed with it. As the moon revolves round the earth, [...] the earth, with its revolving moon, round the ſun, [...]uſt happen at times that the moon will be between [...] earth and the ſun, in which caſe it will intercept [...] light of the ſun from ſome part of the earth, as if [...] put your hand between your eye and a candle, it [...] obſcure the candle either in whole or in part; where [...] light is ſo intercepted, the ſun will be eclipſed and [...]e or leſs according to the quantity of light inter⯑ [...]ed, ſo, that to a ſpectator on the earth, the ſun will [62]ſeem to be darkened by the moon paſſing before it, this muſt always happen at new moon, as we find eclipſes of the ſun do, when the light ſide of the moon i [...] turned from us: ſhould it happen by the ſame me [...] that the earth comes between the moon and the ſun, and directly oppoſite to each other, the earth being a ſolid ſubſtance, caſting and ſhadow behind it, and the moon paſſing through that ſhadow, will be eclipſed more or leſs as ſhe paſſes more or leſs through the ſhade. Thi [...] moſt always happen at full moon. Eclipſes of the ſu [...] are ſeen only in particular places, where the ſun's ligh [...] it intercepted from them, but eclipſes of the moon muſt be univerſal, and are ſeen every where, it be⯑ing obſcured by the earth's ſhadow.
We are apt to think a good deal of thoſ [...] things, and that we are under the influence of the ſtar [...] but for my part, I do not know whether my planet [...] good or bad.
You make me ſmile with your planet. Ex⯑cluſive of the effects of heat from the ſun's rays, whic [...] ſometimes have very ſenſible influence upon natur [...] and that influence which we attribute to the moon up [...] the tides, be aſſured there is no other. The ſtars ta [...] no part in any thing that concerns us. The influence of the planets is an old and vulgar error. The anc [...] Romans conſidered all the fingular phenomena whi [...] they remarked in the heavens, as ſo many prodigi [...] ▪ The Egyptians uſed to beat kettles, and thus made great noiſe to frighten away the dragon, which t [...] ſaid attacked the moon, when they ſaw it eclipſes. The truth of aſtronomical knowledge has convinced of the vanity of judicial aſtrology, and has cured us its chimaeras.
You are now clearing up things to which I had no comprehenſion of: but how was knowledge acquired; and what proofs are there of.
From the earlieſt ages, men have attac [...] themſelves to the ſtudy of the ſtars. They obſerved phenomena of nature, and remarked the regular re [...] of ſeaſons the conſtant and wonderful order of heavenly bodies. Philoſophy and aſtronomy have gone a [...] great way-into this enquiry; in ſhort, by [63]aſſiſtance of glaſſes, that bring objects nearer to the [...]iew; I mean teleſcopes, which by chance were diſ⯑ [...]covered.
I beg pardon for interrupting you. But [...]ow was this diſcovery made?
Very remarkably. The children of a [...]ectacle maker at Middleburg in Zealand, having put two glaſſes into a tube, one before the other, by way of [...]muſement, and looking through them at the cock upon clock, it appeared ſo large, and brought it ſo near to the [...]ye, that they ran and told their father of it, who was [...]urpriſed at the effect. He preſently made the firſt teleſcope we had, which ſince had been ſo much im⯑proved, as to enable us, by their help, to demonſtrate [...]eometrically what paſſes at very great diſtances. The [...]alculations of good aſtronomers are ſuch, that they [...]now how to predict a number of years before, both the hour and minute of the return of each ſeaſon, the mo⯑ [...]ent, the greatneſs and duration of eclipſes, and point [...]t thoſe which are viſible to us, and to others; but as [...] the predictions of rain or fine weather, which we [...]eet with in almanacks, they are fit only to amuſe fools. [...]he alteration of the weather depends more or leſs on the weight of the air, and the direction of the winds, [...]f courſe, who can fortel their variations?
I could wiſh to have ſome account of the [...]r and the winds.
The air conſiſts of an infinite number of [...]rticles, or ſmall bodies of water, and other matter ex⯑ [...]led from the earth and ſea, by the heat of the ſun; [...]eſe riſe ſome miles above the earth, and being con⯑ [...]uſed or preſſed together form clouds, which be⯑ [...]ming too heavy, by collecting, for the air below to [...]pport them, fall in rain, or in cold weather, in ſnow or [...]il, which is nothing more than rain frozen into flakes of ice, in the upper region of the air.
What are Fogs and Dew?
Dew is the vapour or watery particles raiſed [...] the ſun from the earth; but in the mornings and [...]mings at ſun-riſe and ſun- [...]s;et, the ſun yields not ſuffi⯑ [...]nt heat to carry it up into the air, of courſe, it is by [...]e cold condenſed or thickened, and falls upon the earth [64]agains. This, frozen in the winter, gives the white [...] [...]oar-froſt.
A Fog is alſo the vapour riſing from the earth, and ow⯑ing to the cold morning, particularly in ſpring and autumn, is condenſed, and of courſe becomes too heavy to riſe in the air; it hovers therefore upon the ſurface of th [...] ground, and ſometimes ſo low, that you may ſee over it.
A Miſt is the ſame vapour, but carried rather higher. It is, in fact, a thin cloud that falls before it b [...] ſufficiently condenſed, but not ſo low as to touch the ſur⯑face of the ground, of courſe, by ſtooping down [...] may ſee under it. This vapour according to its degree [...] condenſation, will ſometimes appear only as a miſt, an [...] at others in drizling rain: ſo that you ſee the fog riſes b [...] the miſt falls. I have ſeen-in an evening and a morning in hot weather, the vapours riſe from the top of a hig [...] hill in one particular ſpot, like ſmoke from a chimney and in ſuch quantities, as to be too heavy to be carried u [...] into the air, of courſe have fallen down again preſentl [...] and in a quarter of an hour, have covered the who valley with miſt.
How high will theſe vapours riſe?
The atmoſphere ſurrounds the earth an [...] riſes above it, to the diſtance of about forty-ſix [...] forty-ſeven miles, but the clouds are not generall [...] above two or three miles high; the tops of the hills a [...] frequently above the clouds. The higher we ri [...] in that atmoſphere, the thinner we find the air, a [...] it is ſuppoſed that at the height of ſix or ſeven miles from the ſurface of the earth, it would be too th [...] to ſupport life, for it is by breathing air of a certa [...] weight that we live. In wet weather the air is con [...] ⯑derably lighter than in fine weather.
How is that, Sir? Do not we call da [...] weather, heavy weather? And do not we feel [...] ſpirits oppreſſed at ſuch times, whereas in fine weather we are light and active?
We do; but this is owing to our reaſon from effects. A certain weight of air is neceſſary keep us in health; was I to mention the weight of which the body of a man ſupports, it would be al [...] incredible, it is not leſs than about 31, 320. pounds [65]nearly fourteen tons, a weight that would cruſh him, Providence had not wiſely provided againſt it, but he [...]is made air of ſo ſubtile a nature as to pervade all [...]b [...]s;tances let them be ever ſo compact, of courſe [...]roughout the frame of man, there is a quantity of [...]ternal air, that acts as an equipoiſe to the external [...]eſſure, ſo that we are not incommoded by it. If then [...]e weight of the air be reduced to thirteen tons, we find [...]rſelves diſordered, for if fourteen tons weight of air [...] neceſſary to conſtringe and brace the fibres and nerves [...] the body, a loſs of one ton, muſt, of courſe, relax [...], and a heavineſs of ſpirits enſue; it is owing to this [...]at we call a light air, heavy; and a heavy air, light. [...]is this weight of air that foretels the weather in the [...]rometer or weather-glaſs. The air being extracted between the ſurface of quickſilver and the top of the [...]ſs, as the weight of the atmoſphere preſſes upon the reſervoir of quickſilver, in the baſon at bottom, it [...]es in the tube, of courſe the heavier the air, the [...]gher it riſes; and the lighter the air, the lower it ſinks. [...]hen therefore we obſerve the quickſilver to ſink, we [...]pect rain, as the air becoming lighter, will not have [...]fficient ſtrength to buoy up the clouds.
Now you mention the weight of the air, [...] me, if you pleaſe, what theſe air-balloons are, that [...]ve made ſo much noiſe of late.
It is a known principle in natural philoſophy, [...]t in any fluid, the lighter body will riſe to the top: in the ſea, a lighter body, as wood and cork, will riſe to [...]e ſurface, ſo in the air, bodies lighter than the air will [...]e in it; for example, ſmoke, feathers, &c. Now it [...] lately been diſcovered, that a light hollow globe, [...]ed with Gas, which is an ebullition or air extri⯑ [...]ted from certain ſubſtances, as vitriol, ſteel-filings, [...]e putrefaction of animal bodies, or other things; [...]ich there is a means of doing; acids poured upon [...]el-filings will procure this gas, which is lighter than [...] air, and will naturally raiſe the globe till it meet with [...]art of the atmoſphere as light and thin as itſelf, when [...]ill riſe no higher. Ingenious men, from this diſco⯑ [...]y, may hereafter find a method of directing it in the [66]air, and by this means a way of conveying things from one place to another.
I have heard, Sir, that the Rainbow is o [...] ⯑ing to a reflection of the light from the drops of rain falling from the clouds: Is it ſo?
It is: and it ariſes from a beautiful diſpo⯑ſition of colours, which the rain takes on, when th [...] ſun ſhines upon the falling cloud, a diſpoſition o [...] ⯑dained by the Alimighty, as a token of his promiſe t [...] Noah, that he would never again drown the world. Th [...] full moon ſhining on the rain, will alſo occaſion a rain⯑bow, but a fainter one.
You mentioned the ſubtilty of the air and its pervading all ſubſtances?
I did. It is the primum mobile, or principal agent of all nature. It acts upon vegetables as well [...] animals. Nothing can live without it. By means [...] the lungs, we inſpire and expire alternately, that is [...] ſay, we draw in the air and throw it out again by tur [...]. The air has a great influence upon health; when [...] ⯑tiated by accidental cauſes, it occaſions epidemic ſick⯑neſs both to man and beaſt. It pervades the wate [...] and the very bowels of the earth: It is this, in conju [...] ⯑tion with fire, that cauſes Earthquakes. The earth [...] cloſes in its bowels a great deal of inflammable matte [...] which very eaſily takes fire, and will then expand t [...] air pent up in ſubterraneous caverns, and convul [...] the earth; ſometimes it will burſt its incloſures, ma [...] great miſts in the earth, ſwallow up every thing up [...] the ſurface and belch out its flames in great abundan [...]. Hence ariſe the Vulcanos or burning mountain [...] [...] many parts of the world, which are a kind of tunn [...] or chimnies where this ſubterraneous fire has ve [...] Veſuvius has burnt for more than a thouſand years.
From this account of the nature of air, you [...] form a good idea of the Wind, which is merely a c [...] ⯑rent of air, more or leſs violent, according to the im [...] ⯑tuoſity with which it moves; for the air fluctuates [...] the waves of the ſea, and is as capable of being agita [...] to the utmoſt degree.
The winds take different names from the points fr [...] whence they blow, viz. north, eaſt, ſouth, and weſt [67]Seamen, who conduct their ſhips from place to place the wind, find it neceſſary to know the leaſt varia⯑ [...]ns, of courſe they divide theſe four names into [...]rty-two, but ſuch an accurate knowledge is not ne⯑ [...]ſary for you. It is enough to know the effects of [...] four winds. A north wind in winter is very ſharp, [...] in ſummer, it moderates and refreſhes both plants [...] animals. And a ſouth wind, in winter, temperates [...] cold. Theſe are the winds that bring and chace [...]ay the rain. It is the property of wind to dry the [...]d; it is of uſe to turn wind-mills, where there is not conveniency to erect water-mills; but one of the [...]at benefits, which the wind affords, is, that of aſſiſt⯑ [...] the vegetation of plants. Its action ſerves to raiſe [...] ſap and keep it in motion.
But I have known dreadful effects from [...] wind; I have ſeen it tear up trees by the roots, and [...]rturn buildings by its rage.
I believe it. The violence of the winds [...]o be dreaded, when they croſs and claſh with each [...]er. When an eaſt wind and weſt wind rages and [...]ets each other with fury, they excite whirlwinds, tem⯑ [...]s, and hurricanes, which ſweep away all before them. Whirlwind is a circling wind, that frequently in the [...]dy deſarts of Arabia, will carry up the duſt a con⯑ [...]erable height in the air, and ſmother a traveller that [...]pens to be in it. Hurricanes are ſuch a ſcourge to [...]igation, that mariners dread them exceedingly. [...]ere was ſuch a furious hurricane at Guardaloupe, in [...]8, that lifted out of the waters, a veſſel of eighty [...]s burthen, then at anchor in the port, and by one [...]t carried her more than 1000 paces upon the land; [...] are my friend, the different effects of air and wind. [...]th reſpect to the velocity of wind, it goes, in a great [...]m, at the rate of fifty or ſixty miles an hour; a [...]mon briſk wind, flies about fifteen miles an hour; [...] ſome winds move not one mile an hour. Now [...] are on the ſubject of air, there is a phenomena [...] two that I would make you acquainted with.
I am all attention.
One is Sound; the other is the Eccho. Sound [...]e effect of air, ſtruck or preſſed on, by ſome com⯑pulſive [68]cauſe, till it reaches our ear. Air undula [...] like water, and as when we ſtrike the water in any o [...] place it communicates its motion to the water nexts [...] and ſo on till the force of ſuch ſtroke is felt at a conſi⯑derable diſtance, ſo is it in air. If we give moti [...] to the air by our voice, that motion will mo [...] the adjoining air, and will extend the communication in proportion to the agitation we firſt give it. T [...] louder the noiſe, the further the ſound is thus communi⯑cated. In a word, the air is a fluid ſo ſubtil and de [...] ⯑cate, and its motion is ſo quick, that the ſound of great clock will be carried 1200 feet in a ſecond of time.
Now, Sir, for the eccho.
An eccho is accounted for, on the ſa [...] principles. An undulation is given to the air by [...] concuſſion of the voice; this undulation reaches ſo [...] wall, ſome houſe, or ſome wood, meets there with reſiſtance and is reflected or reverberated back to [...] ear, ſo that we ſhall hear the ſame words ſome ſecon [...] after we have ſpoken them. If there are two or three or more reſiſting objects in the way, the will e [...] ſend back the ſound in their turn, and we ſhall hear [...] ſame word repeated two, three, or more times.
I have been told that Light is a body, [...] that it paſſes a great deal quicker than ſound.
Light is another phenomenon in natural not leſs wonderful than air: it is a fluid that ex [...] without ceaſing. We admit that light is part of [...] ſubſtance of the ſun, from whence it flows, and is ſubtil as to penetrate every where throughout the [...]. Its velocity or quickneſs of paſſing is ſo great, that will run neat twelve millions of miles in one min [...]. It is by the combined effects of the air, and light, t [...] we are indebted for the Dawn and the Twilight.
Pray, Sir, explain it to me.
If it were not for the atmoſphere, as [...] as the ſun ſets, we ſhould loſe the benefit of his li [...] and be in inſtant darkneſs, but though the ſun by [...] ⯑ting is hid from our view, it ſtill continues to [...] light to the upper part of the atmoſphere, which [...] ⯑flects it down upon us, and gives the twilight; ſo break of day, was it not for the air, as ſoon as the [69]riſes, we ſhould have inſtant day, and the ſudden glare [...]uld hurt our ſight, but the Almighty has provided [...]ainſt it. It illuminates the atmoſphere above, ſome⯑ [...]e before it riſes, forms what we call the Dawn, [...]d introduces the day to us gradually.
I think, Sir, in ſpeaking of the winds, you [...]d nothing of the Monſoons.—What are they?
There is ſomething wonderful in the phe⯑nomena of the monſoons, or trade winds. They always [...]w from one and the ſame quarter of the globe. In [...] Ethiopic, Atlantic, and Pacific oceans (to thirty degrees of the equinoctial line) they are found to blow [...]tinually towards the weſt; but in the bay of Bengal, [...]abian, Chineſe, and Indian ſeas, they blow in the [...]mer to the north-eaſt, and in the winter to the ſouth⯑ [...]t. So that if the ſeamen who ſail in thoſe parts ob⯑ [...]e the ſeaſons, they never fail of a fair wind to [...]ry them out and bring them back. They waft the [...]el generally at the rate of about nine miles an hour.
And to what is this owing?
To the powerful influence of the ſun in [...]e warm climates; for when the air is very much [...]ed, it will riſe to the upper part of the atmoſphere, [...] the adjacent air will ruſh in to ſupply its place, [...] therefore there will be a ſtream or current of air [...] all parts, towards the place, where the heat is. [...] it being the property of heat to rarefy or expel the [...] the ſame phenomenon will take place in a room, [...] a fire in it; for as the fire expels the air round it, [...] adjacent air will ruſh in, ſo that there is a conſtant [...]ght between the window, if open, and the fire, and [...]reen the doors and the fire, of courſe to fit in ſuch [...]ents or draughts of air, is not only unpleaſant, but [...]gerous to the health.
Of all the four elements, Fire I apprehend [...]oſt to be dreaded: I have a very imperfect notion [...]re, and ſhall be happy to be better imformed.
Fire, my dear Eugenius, is like water, a [...] good ſervant, but a very bad maſter.
You mean, that it is very uſeful to man, [...] kept within bounds, but very deſtructive when [...]ed to rage, or get head?
I do. With reſpect to its nature, it is inexplicable riddle. We know only that fire is a p [...] ⯑digious elaſtic fluid, which gives heat and light. T [...] burning fluid, ſo ſubtle, and to which we give the n [...] of electric matter, is ſpread throughout the atmoſ⯑phere, and exiſts inviſibly more or leſs in all body. As long as it is ſhut up, it is peaceable, and as it we [...] captive. It requires only a certain degree of motion make us perceive it. Two bodies ſtriking againſt, rubbed hard, upon each other, is ſufficient to let it lo [...] it then ſparkles, gives light, and will communicate wh [...] it can. Its action laſts till the object it attacks and f [...] it, is reduced to aſhes. Take notice how the air agit [...] and encreaſes fire. If it wants air, it will ſmother [...] diſappear. The more the air is condenſed, that [...] ſay, the thicker and heavier it is, the more it preſſes [...] fire, and increaſes its heat. This is the reason that is more lively in winter, because the air that ſurro [...] it, is at that time more condenſed. For the con [...] reaſon, the air being more ratified, that is to ſay, lig [...] in ſummer, fire then has leſs force. You muſt have ſerved, that the ſun ſhining upon the fire, will put it and for the reaſon I mentioned.
You muſt allow, however, that it is i [...] ſummer-time and in hot weather, that fire make [...] greateſt ravages; for example, the Thunder. W [...] think you of that dreadful phenomenon?
The real opinion of the beſt natural [...] ⯑oſophers, is, that Lightning is no other than that [...] ⯑tric matter, of which I have told you; a kind of fluid, infinitely ſubtle and penetrating. This fire communicate and join itſelf with almoſt every th [...] and become more active and more violent. It riſes the earth into the upper regions of the air, and [...] meeting with a great quantity of imflammable ex [...] ⯑tions, which are a kind of food to electric fire, ſ [...] lightning and thunder. This is ſo true, that ho [...] ⯑mates, where the air is full of bitumen, ſulphur, [...] ⯑petre and other like ſubſtances, are more ſubject lightning and thunder than other parts. It thu [...] frequently in Italy, and almoſt all the year in Jam [...] but much more ſeldom in cold countries, and [71] [...]ere is great deal of rain. Lightning is no more [...]an ſparks from electrified clouds. Clouds driven by [...]ontrary winds, collect and beat one againſt another; [...]is creates an infinity of ſparks, which are the fore-run⯑ers of thunder. If the ſparks meet with a good deal [...]f inflammable matter collected, it augments the action [...]f the electric fire, ſo as to break in thunder and thun⯑der-bolts. The ſudden firing of this matter, and the [...]xpanſion and terrible exploſion of theſe globes of fire, [...]riking the air with great violence, produces a dreadful [...]ife, which is heard a great way off. Though we [...]ow not the nature of this fire, if we judge of it by [...]s effects, the powers of lightning when accompanied [...]ith thunder is great and wonderful. We have known [...]e blade of a ſword to be melted in the ſcabbard, and [...]e ſcabbard not hurt [...] a foot burnt in the ſhoe and the [...]oe not injured; liquor diſappear in a corked bottle, [...]d the bottle not broke. When thunder is heard [...]d no lightning is ſeen, it is, that the clouds, which [...]caſion the ſtorm, are ſo thick, ſo cloſe, and ſo dark. [...] not to ſuffer the lightning to be viſible. It was for⯑ [...]erly an cuſtom in thunder and lightning to ring the [...]lls in a church ſteeple, in hopes of deſtroying the [...]ect of the lightning by agitating the air with the [...]and of the bells; but it has been known to attract [...]e lightning and bring it down upon the bells, and [...]on the ringers, rather than diſperſe it. To avoid the [...]ſtructive effects of this electric fire, which will fre⯑quently ſhake the ſteeples of churches, and other high [...]ildings, wires are now fixed, to ſerve as Conductors; [...]it has been proved, that a wire raiſed above the top [...] a building, and carried at a ſmall diſtance down the [...]e of ſuch building into the ground below, will attract [...] lightning and conduct it into the ground, without doing any injury in its paſſage.
We hear almoſt every year of ſome new acci⯑ [...] ariſing from thunder, but I was ignorant until now, [...]t it was a natural effect. I thought God had ſent [...]nder always to alarm the wicked. But, I find, by at explanation, that [...] an element of conſequence the catalogue of nat [...].
It is the ve [...] [...]oul of nature. It gives life [72]to every thing. When too much cold takes away th [...] fire that exiſts even in the coldeſt water, the wat [...] freezes. When fire ceaſes to warm the air, the air be⯑comes cold and froſty. In ſhort, without the beni [...] influence of fire, all nature would die, and the ear [...] would produce nothing.
We certainly receive the greateſt bene [...] from fire, it affords us light and heat, and dreſſer o [...] food. I do believe that without its aſſiſtance, men wo [...] not be able to ſubſiſt.
You may carry your views a great way fa⯑ther; beſides being the principle of the life, both animals and vegetables; it is by this that we diſtil [...] ⯑rits and perform a number of chemical operation by this we melt and refine ores, calcine ſtone, a [...] make lime to build with; by this we make glaſs, wonderful compoſition of aſhes and ſand, which p [...] ⯑vents the wind and cold entering our dwellings [...] yet ſuffering the light to paſs; by this alſo we m [...] thoſe glaſſes that aſſiſt a weak ſight, and thoſe teleſco [...] by means of which we read the very heavens. It is account of its many ſervices, that ſome have adored f [...] as a beneficent divinity. The Chaldeans, the Perſi [...] offered ſacrifices to it. At Rome, veſtals were appoint [...] to preſerve and keep up continually the ſacred fire, a [...] were puniſhed with death, if they put it out.
You have enumerated, I confeſs, [...] eſſential ſervices of fire, but you muſt allow, Sir, t [...] its malignity, in a great meaſure, takes off from its [...] ⯑rits. We can never put any confidence in it, it is [...] a traitor. Beſides, fire pervading the earth, prod [...] thoſe dreadful combuſtions you have been deſcribi [...] and expanded through the air, gives birth to that thun⯑der which commits ſuch devaſtation. Is it neceſ [...] that God ſhould ſuffer theſe things?
Theſe ſeeming diſorders in nature are [...] ⯑tainly a real good in the profound views of Provide [...] though human capacity is too limited to find it but to return to your queſtion. Though the effect lightning are dangerous, it is uſeful in the ſyſte [...] nature; it refreſhes the air, and purges it of an in [...] of noxious vapours. If ſubterraneous fires, [...] [73] [...]oſe inflammable ſubſtances in the bowels of the earth [...]hat cauſe volcanos and earthquakes; they are, at [...]he ſame time, the prolific principle of every natural [...]roduction. The earth is ſpongy; water, ſulphureous [...]irits, ſalts and nutritive juices, are conveyed through [...]s pores, penetrate the plant, feed it and make it grow, [...]d all this by the action of fire and air. It is not [...]oubted but that this internal fire exiſts. Workmen [...]ho labour in metalic mines aſſure us, that the lower [...]ey go, the greater is the heat, eſpecially beyond the [...]epth of 480 feet. Naturaliſts atribute the heat of [...]ot baths, to the effects of theſe ſubterraneous fires, or a mixture of pyrites or fire-ſtones, which heat in diſ⯑ [...]ving. We have, in Europe, many ſprings of this kind, [...]hoſe waters, more or leſs hot, are very beneficial in [...]any diſorders. Bath, Buxton and Matlock in England, [...]aude-Fontaine and Aix-la-Chapelle in Germany. [...]he degree of heat in the laſt, is ſo great as to boil an [...]g hard in five minutes. Chymiſts have diſcovered in [...]e water of hot baths, a variety of matter, ſuch as [...]re, vitriol, allum, ſulphur, bitumen, antimony, and [...]me particles of iron, copper, ſilver, and gold. They [...]tain more or leſs of theſe different ſubſtances, which [...]ders their virtues more or leſs eſticacious, and proper [...] the cure of many diſorders.
Before you cloſe the article of fire; pleaſe give me ſome account of gun-powder.
It was known in China, a long time be⯑ [...]e it was diſcovered in Europe; but the wiſe Chi⯑ [...]e made no other uſe of it, than for their amuſement; [...] example, in forming a variety of artificial fires, which they excelled. In the year 1400 it was diſ⯑ [...]ered in Europe by one Shwartz of Cologne. He a great chymiſt, and grinding one day upon a ſtone [...]e brimſtone, ſalt-petre and charcoal, a ſpark of accidentally fell among the compoſition, and with a [...]ible exploſion, blew the ſtone into the air and filled whole laboratory with ſmoke. Such, is ſaid to be [...] origin of this diſcovery ſo fatal to the human race. know, I preſume, the ravage which fire-arms, eſ⯑ [...]ally cannon, have made throughout Europe.
What is it gives gun-powders that force?
It ariſes from the air pent up in every grain of powder, and ſuddenly dilated by being ſet on fire. The greater the quantity of powder and the more i [...] is compreſſed, the greater is the exploſion, and th [...] more violent its effects. Nothing reſembles more th [...] noiſe of thunder, than that which ariſes from the ex⯑ploſion of gun-powder.
But the fire of the ſun, when its rays are concentre [...] in the focus of a burning glaſs, that is, brought to [...] point, by ſuffering the ſun to ſhine through a thick conve [...] piece of glaſs, [...] is far more active than earthly fire, [...] it as powerful as it may. It was by this means, the [...] ſay, that Archimedes, the greateſt mechaniſt in th [...] world, burnt the Roman fleet before Syracuſe. F [...] through ſuch a glaſs, the ſun's rays may be collected [...] a point at a great diſtance from the glaſs. In a wo [...] to cloſe this ſubject, fire pervades both the Heave [...] and the Earth, and would deſtroy every thing, if G [...] did not confine it within certain limits, and the inſta [...] he ſhall pleaſe to let it looſe it will terminate in th [...] univerſal conflagration and diſſolution of the element which will put an end to the world.
Having now entered, I believe, pretty ful [...] into the heavenly bodies, and into two of the element namely Fire and Air; let me requeſt, if I have [...] tired you, to give me ſome account of the other t [...] Earth and Water.
As you ſeem diſpoſed at attend, we w [...] from the heavens deſcend upon the earth. Here t [...] we are; and as the waters occupy the greateſt part the ſurface of the terreſtrial globe, we will be with conſidering the Sea.
[...]ow Hhappy ſhould I be to ſee this g [...] element!
In a calm, when there is no wind, would ſee immenſe, fluid, greeniſh plain, always [...] ⯑dulating, but in no great degree; at other times, w [...] the wind blows, you will ſee it very much agitated, riſing ſucceſſively in great billows; beyond the rea [...] the eye, daſhing, as it were, the very clouds. [...] whole extent of the ſea is not yet diſcovered. We [...] that it ſurrounds and divides different parts of the e [...]. To different parts of the ſea we give different na [...]
What is there remarkable belonging to the ſea? I have heard of the Tides, as a thing very ſingular.
This phenomenon is an effect ſo extraor⯑dinary in the nature of Water, that the beſt natural philoſophers, have not yet able to paſs more than ſome rational conjectures on its true cauſe. It ſeems as if it pleaſed God to conceal this among a number of other ſecrets of nature, which are impenetrable to the human mind. However, the general opinion is, that the ſun, and particularly the moon, are moſtly con⯑cerned in the flux and reflux of the ſea. The waters of the ſea in the flux, flow or are gently drawn from ſouth to north for the ſpace of ſix hours; in the reflux, they employ the ſame time in returning from north to ſouth: reſting about a quarter of an hour between the [...]ebb and flow, and the flow and ebb. When it has lowed its ſix hours, the water is conſiderably higher in the place to which it has flowed, and we call it high-water at that place. When it has returned, or ebbed its [...]ix hours, we ſay, it is low-water. But this periodical low and ebb, is not general in all ſeas, nor equal.
Can you give me no farther account of it?
Theſe tides are of great uſe when there is little or no wind, in carrying veſſels up certain rivers [...]n their flow, and conveying them back again in the [...]me of ebb: they are of ſimilar uſe about the coaſts, [...]nd carry ſhips at the rate of about five miles an hour. The moon acts upon the water, according to a re⯑ [...]eived opinion, by attraction, that is to ſay, it raiſes or [...]raws the water towards it, at ſome certain ſituations her courſe round the earth, at which time it occaſions ſwell of the ſea, in that part directly under the [...]oon, and of courſe as the waters riſe in one place, [...]e waters from other parts will run there. This [...]caſions the current in certain directions.
If this was general, there would be a tide all rivers, which I underſtand is not the caſe.
I told you it was by no means general. In [...]ers of little or no breadth, where the moon cannot [...]in one part ſtronger than in another, there will be tide, for the attraction being equal in ſuch narrow [76]ſtreams, the water cannot ſhift or move from one place to another, ſo as to cauſe a flux and reflux.
Is the moon's power of attraction; always the ſame in the ſame parts?
No; it has a greater attraction at new and full moon, than at the firſt or third quarter; for the ſituation of the moon, with the reſpect to the ſun, at the new and full, is ſuch, that the ſun conſpires with the moon at thoſe times to attract the waters, and cauſes a higher tide, than when the moon is in the firſt or third quarters. At new and full moon, the tides are called ſpring-tides, and riſe nine or ten feet above the le⯑vel of the water, at low-water mark. When the moon is in the firſt and third quarter, the water does not riſe ſo high, and the tides are then called neap-tides. From the time of neap-tide to that of ſpring-tide, the water riſe every tide more and more; till they get to the higheſt; from ſpring-tide to neap-tide, they gradually fall more and more.
Does not the tide alter its time of flowing every day?
It does; and is in this regulated by the moon; for as the moon riſes every day fifty minute later than the day before, ſo does the ſea riſe alſo, that is, it flows 50 minutes later. To give you a better o [...] clearer account of it, it would be neceſſary to explain it by drawings; I have ſaid enough to give you general idea, which is all I aim at.
I underſtand it very well, and am much obliged to you. I have been told that Sea-water [...] not fit to drink. What is this owing to?
Becauſe it is ſalt, and bitter, and of marſhy ſmell. Theſe qualities render it diſagreeable to the taſte, though it may not be ſo to a great man who live almoſt wholly upon the ſea. The Czar, Pet [...] the Great, obliged his ſailors to accuſtom their children to drink nothing but ſea-water, and they all die [...] Maſters of veſſels always provide freſh water for th [...] ſhip's company before they fail. The important ſeen of making ſalt water freſh, to a certain degree, ha [...] indeed, been diſcovered for ſome years, and moſt ſe [...] men know how to do it; but they have recourſe to the [77]method only upon urgent occaſions. Sea-water is heavier than river-water; will of courſe float greater burdens, and it is on account of its weight, that it evaporates more, and freezes leſs: it is alſo more or leſs ſalt in certain places. Do not imagine that the ſalt it contains is uſeleſs. Providence has made nothing in vain. The Sun, by its heat, attracts from the ſur⯑face of the ſea a quantity of vapours impregnated with light particles of ſalt: theſe vapours riſe in the air, and form clouds. They fall again in rain, in ſnow, in [...]hail, and ſprinkle the land; and, by the ſalts they con⯑tain, aſſiſt vegetation. Beſides, ſea-water affords us ſalt for our different wants. They make it at the ſea⯑ſide; and thoſe places, where they make it, are called ſalt-pits. They pump in a quantity of water into [...]hallow pits, leave it there ſome time, to be evaporated by the ſun, by which means the water is exhaled, and the ſalt remains: after this, to purify it and make it white, they boil it in veſſels till it is dry and fit for uſe.
The ſea affords us ſtill greater benefits; for example, fiſh in the greateſt abundance. Is it known, Sir, how many ſorts there are?
The ſea is a liquid world, peopled with an [...]ſinity of inhabitants, different in ſpecies, in ſize, and manner of living. We are acquainted with a great many, but there are probably many we are unacquainted [...]ith. We find ſome particular kinds of fiſh in certain [...]as, and other fiſh in other ſeas; as Cod on the banks of Newfoundland. Some come in ſhoals at particular [...]imes, as Herrings and Mackrell; others, alone; ſome [...]eep about the coaſts; others out at ſea; ſome never quit be mud, that is, they crawl at the bottom; others [...]im near the top. The greateſt number of fiſhes are [...]iparous, that is to ſay, the young ſpring from the [...]awn or eggs of the female, which are impregnated [...]y the male; others are viviparous, that is, produce [...]heir young completely formed. Some fiſh are covered [...]ith ſkins, others with ſcales, and others with ſhells. [...]ue ſort is good to eat, another for different uſes. [...]ome they catch after one manner; ſome after another. Almoſt all fiſh are fiſh of prey, and feed upon others; [...]at the voracious, are the leaſt prolific; whilſt [78]thoſe which ſerve others for prey multiply prodigiouſly; ſo that no one ſpecies can be thoroughly deſtroyed. The Creator has given to fiſhes, as to other animals, in⯑ſtinct, and a means of procuring their ſubſiſtance. Every ſpecies has its mode of attack, its art of defence, and method of ſtealing away from the purſuit of its enemy.
You can tell me, no doubt, many remark⯑able things of fiſhes?
As far as my reading, and ſome few con⯑verſations I have had upon the ſubject, has enabled me.
The Whale is called the Queen of the Sea, becauſe ſhe is the greateſt fiſh, and the largeſt of the watery tribe. Whales have been taken from 130 to 200 feet in length, but they are, in general, about 60 or 70 feet long. The head of a Whale is of an enormous ſize and is about a third of its whole length; but its eye are no larger than the eyes of an Ox. Its whole ſtrength and defence is in its tail, which is very large. It live upon ſmall fiſh, which abound in the North ſeas. It [...] chiefly on the coaſts of Greenland and about Spitſberge [...] that they are caught. The Dutch are annually at great expence in this fiſhery. The fat of the Wha [...] yields a quantity of train oil, which is a great artic [...] of commerce with the Dutch. Many ſhips go annual from Englands, and to encourage the fiſhery, whic [...] with the God fiſhery at Newfoundland, is a nurſery ſ [...] ſeamen, government gives a bounty for every What that is brought home. It is this fiſh alone that yield the whalebone. The Whale, and other fiſhes of t [...] like kind, which we call cetaceous, are viviparou [...] they carry their young nine or ten months, and ha [...] only one or two young Whales at a time, which th [...] ſuckle a year. Great Whales lay themſelves up un [...] the ice, which they pierce to take air, for they can remain more than half an hour under water with [...] coming to the ſurface to breathe. They have two tu [...] on the head, through which they throw up the w [...] to a great height, and with great noiſe.
I am curious to know how they are cau [...]
I will tell you then. An expert, ſtr [...] ſailor throws a harpoon at the Whale, which is an [79]pole, about five or ſix feet long, with a barbed point, and a rope faſtened at the other end. As ſoon as the Whale feels this ſtick in its back, it flies; and the cord, which is of great length, is ſuffered to run out with the Whale. The fiſh is purſued with boats, and preſently [...]oſes its ſtrength with its blood, and expires on the ſurface of the water. When dead, they cut it up, as it [...]ies on the water, and take only on board ſuch parts of t [...]as are uſeful.
Are there any other great fiſhes?
There is the Sea-Unicorn, ſo called on ac⯑count of a long tooth it carries on the left ſide of its [...]pper jaw. This fiſh is a great enemy to the Whale. There is a Sword-fiſh, that has a bone in his noſe like ſword, that attacks and combats the Whale, and puts [...] to flight. There is alſo the Porpoiſe and the Dol⯑phin, which are large fiſhes. The Dolphin by no means reſembles what painters deſcribe it; it is a [...]ery ſwift ſwimmer, being continually in purſuit of [...]mall fiſhes, of which it devours a prodigious quantity.
Different ſeas yield different kinds of fiſhes; but among ſea-monſters, one of the moſt miſchievous and [...]oracious, and which is found almoſt every where, is [...]e Shark. They have been ſeen twenty-five feet long. [...]is called the tyrant of the ſeas. It makes cruel war [...]ith other fiſhes, and has been known to ſwallow a [...]an whole, even when he was armed; ſome have ima⯑gined, that it was in the belly of this fiſh that the pro⯑phet Jonah lived three days.
I ſhould dread the teeth of this monſtrous [...]h, if I was out at ſea. Are theſe, Sir, the only re⯑markable fiſhes?
There are many of an amphibious kind, at is, ſuch as live both by land and by water. For [...]ample, the Sea-Cow, the Sea-Wolf, the Sea-Bear, [...]d the Sea-Lion, who have only two feet, which are [...]hands or fins to ſwim with, whereas all other fiſhes [...]ve four fins. Theſe frequent great rivers. They [...]e been known to weigh from 1000 to 1200lb weight. They continue more or leſs time in the water, and Then out of the water, are found feeding, repoſing, or [...]ping, upon the ice, upon a rock, or upon the ſhore. [80]It is at this time they are generally taken. The Tor⯑toiſe is alſo a kind of amphibious ſhell-fiſh, of which there are three ſpecies, Land-Tortoiſes, Sea-Tortoiſes, or Turtle, and thoſe of freſh water. The Tortoiſe, or Turtle, is oviparous, and lives a long time; its fleſh and eggs are good to eat. Travellers affirm, that they have ſeen Turtles ten feet long, and ſeven feet wide. A ſingle one has yielded two hundred weight of fleſh. A female Turtle lays more than one hundred and fifty large eggs. They are found in the ſand on the ſhore [...] in holes, where they are depoſited. A fat Turtle will yield more than thirty pints of oil drawn from its greaſe. This oil is good in cookery when new, and fi [...] to burn when old. The fat has even a good flavour will keep and ſupply the place of butter. In a word, the ſhell is beautiful; and ſerves to make a variety of curious things. In ſome ſeas, they find Turtles in abundance.
It would be unneceſſary to acquaint you with tha [...] multitude of fiſhes that is brought from the coaſts t [...] market, and thoſe various ſpecies of ſhell-fiſh, ſuch a [...] Oyſters, Muſcles, Crabs, Lobſters, &c. which you ha [...] frequently ſeen. I will trouble your memory only with a few other ſingularities which the ſea preſents. Fo [...] example, we find in the American iſles, a fiſh who [...] ſkin and ſcales are red; at Cape Comorin, they hav [...] what they call the Golden-fiſh, which takes its nam [...] from a circle round the eye, and a ſtreak from th [...] head to the tail, of a golden colour. In the Eaſt In⯑dies, there are ſmall fiſhes, black and white, ſcattere [...] with ſpots of gold and ſilver. The great men of th [...] country keep them as a curioſity. In warm climate [...] there are fiſhes they call Flying-fiſh, becauſe they jump out of the water when purſued by their enemy, an [...] fly in the air for ſome little diſtance. There is a fi [...] in the Mediterranean, called the Cramp-fiſh, whic [...] will benumb the arm that touches it while living, by ſudden ſtroke that it gives; there is among the ſhe [...] fiſh, one called a Sea-hedge-hog, covered with ſha [...] points, which it makes uſe of to roll itſelf in the mu [...] there is another fiſh called Nautilus, which reſembles little boat; its ſkin is arranged in ſuch a way, as to ſerve [...] [81]a ſail; ſo that it is driven upon the waves by the wind. There is another like an Eel, called the Torpedo, which, then touched, emits ſparks of electric ſire, and will give [...]n electric ſhock. Specimens of theſe fiſhes, are pre⯑ [...]erved by the curious in their cabinets. In the Eaſtern [...]eas, are caught, in great abundance, a kind of Oyſter, thoſe ſhell is mother-of-pearl, and in which pearls are, [...]ound. The moſt valuable pearl we have in Europe, [...]ecorates the crown of the kings of Spain. It is as [...]arge as a pidgeon's egg.
I have heard perſons talk of Mermaids, [...]alf women, and half fiſh; that is, women to the [...]raiſt, and fiſh from the waiſt downwards. Is there [...]uch a thing?
Naturaliſts ſtill doubt it; but if we can be⯑ [...]ieve particular writers, there ſeems teſtimony enough [...]o eſtabliſh it. We read in the Hiſtory of England, [...]hat in 1107, a Mermaid was taken off the coaſt of [...]ffolk, which bore ſo near a conformity with man, [...]hat it ſeemed to want nothing but the ſpeech. We are [...]lſo told, that in Weſt Frieſtand, ſome girls, in 1430, [...]aught one that was floundering in the mud; that [...]hey took it home, dreſſed it in women's apparel, and [...]aught it to ſpin; it fed like one of them, but [...]ever would try to ſpeak: another writer ſays, they [...]aught it ſome notions of a Deity, and it would bow [...]ith reverence when it paſſed a crucifix. Another ac⯑ [...]ount, well-atteſted, ſays, that in 1560, ſome fiſher⯑men caught in the Eaſt Indies ſeven Mermen and Maids; [...]nd other writers make mention of ſuch creatures being [...]aught at other times; but as ſuch monſters have not [...]een ſeen of late years, I am myſelf in doubt about it.
How wonderful is the Creator in his pro⯑ [...]uctions; and what ſingularities does the ſea alone [...]fford!
I could mention many others, if it would [...]ot be entering too minutely into the ſubject. But, [...]efore I quit it, I would have you obſerve, that the [...]ottom of the ſea, in many places, reſembles a ſort of [...]ountry; it is covered with moſs, with turf, with herbs, with roots, with plants, and ſhrubs innumerable, of different kinds, colours, ſize, and form. Beſides the [82]retreat and nouriſhment theſe afford to a number of fiſhes and creeping inſects, which here depoſit their eggs; ſome of theſe plants are made uſe of by men in medi⯑cine, and other things. It would be happy for us, if the uſes of all were known. There are ſtill other ma⯑rine productions; for example, Coral, whoſe fiſhery is very curious. It is much eſteemed in Africa, where they make a variety of pretty toys with it; ſpunge, which is found at the foot of rocks, and of which great uſe is made in many mechanical arts. Let it be remembered that coral and ſpunge, and many like ſubſtances, are not ſea-plants, as has been ſuppoſed, but ſerve as a refuge for certain inſects to lodge in.
Is the ſea very deep?
We are aſſured, that its common depth is about 150 fathom, (each fathom ſix feet) and its greate [...] about 300. We know alſo, that in certain parts of the ſea, there are cavities and caverns, eſpecially in th [...] centre of mountains, whoſe tops riſe above the ſurface Mariners do not ſo much dread theſe rocks that ar [...] above water, as thoſe whoſe tops are below the ſurface and the many ſand-banks and currents by them occa⯑ſioned, which are very dangerous to navigation.
The different ſeas are ſcattered with iſlands; that i [...] to ſay, with land more or leſs extenſives, ſurrounde [...] with water; theſe iſlands are the tops of great hill and mountains at the bottom of the ſea. The greate [...] number of iſlands are found in the neighbourhood [...] great continents. The Archipelago is a part of th [...] Mediterranean ſea, where there is a great quantity [...] iſlands more or leſs conſiderable, and at a little diſtanc [...] from each other.
It is ſuppoſed that the greateſt part of the iſland have appeared ſince the deluge, which occaſioned a [...] univerſal overthrow in the ſurface of the earth. It [...] probable that before the deluge, the waters occupie [...] only one ſide of the globe. We know, however, tha [...] earthquakes have ſometimes raiſed land from the botto [...] of the ſea, and formed new iſlands. By the ſame effect certain iſlands have ſunk, and ſuddenly diſappeare [...]. The ancients ſay, that there have been moving [...] floating iſlands, that is, iſlands which have been ſup⯑ported [83]on the ſurface of the ſea, without touching its bottom; but we conceive this to be a fable, or to have been great drifts of floating ice.
I have heard that ſeamen meet occaſionally with water-ſpouts in their voyages, which they dread approaching, almoſt as much as a rock under water.
Water-ſpouts are a great quantity of water drawn up into the air, by the attraction of a low cloud, which ſeems to deſcend for that purpoſe; at a diſtance it appears like a large funnel, the ſmall end touching the ſea, the broad end enveloped in the clouds. Under the ſmall end the water bubbles up, and appears to boil. Was a ſhip to run foul of one of theſe ſpouts, the waters would break, deluge the veſſel, and probably ſink it. Seamen generally fire a ſhot at it when within reach, and thus diſperſe it, which the agitation of the air, by the exploſion, ſeldom fails to do.
There is only one thing more on the ſub⯑ject of the ſea, that I wiſh to be informed of?
What is that?
The nature of the mariner's compaſs.
This owes its origin to the load-ſtone; a ferruginous ſtone found in iron mines, which has the power of attracting iron. The virtue of this ſtone was known to the ancients. Pliny ſays, it was diſcovered by chance, from a ſhepherd's finding that the nails of his ſhoes, and the iron ferule of his ſtaff, clung to a load⯑ſtone, over which he walked, but they were ignorant of that ſingular property it poſſeſſes of turning towards the poles. We do not know to whom to attribute this important diſcovery. The invention of the compaſs is given to a Dutchman, in the year 1229. It is an iron needle or hand, like the hand of a clock, fixed on a point, ſo as to run round; and one end being touched by the loadſtone, which communicates its virtues to it, makes it always turn to the north. Thus a mariner, knowing what way he is to go, is always directed, though he [...]es no land. And what revolutions in things has the loadſtone produced! It has made us acquainted with the new world: before this invention, ſeamen never ventured out of ſight of land; but now they have tra⯑verſed the whole globe. It is to this we are indebted to, [84]not only for the diſcovery of new countries, but for the rich mines of gold and ſilver, which theſe coun⯑tries produce, and which would have been loſt to us, if we had never reached thoſe ſhores.
All theſe particularities are worthy our knowledge; but after having run through the Heavens and the Waters, ſhall we turn our thoughts to the Earth?
If you pleaſe; and we will penetrate its very bowels. We have hitherto conſidered the earth as a planetary globe, performing its ſtated revolutions, according to the order which the Creator has eſtabliſhed in his arrangement of the world: let us look now into it's compoſition, and into it's internal and external pro⯑ductions.
The earth is divided by the ſea into four great quar⯑ters, Europe, Aſia, Africa, and America. Theſe dif⯑ferent parts of the world are very different in ſize, form, climate, and productions. The Author of nature has been pleaſed to throw into his work a [...] infinite variety. Here, are immenſe plains, there, in⯑acceſſible rocks, and farther off, are mountains that to [...] the clouds. The inequalities on the ſurface of th [...] earth, we attribute to the great overthrow of nature at the general deluge, to the currents of the ſea and the rivers, and to ſubterraneous irruptions. Th [...] learned preſume to ſay, that ſince the creation, th [...] globe has been alternately ſea and land; that is t [...] ſay, that ſuch parts as are now land, were once covert with the ſea; and ſuch parts as the ſea now overflow were once dry land: but this is difficult to demonſtrate.
Can you tell me, Sir, which are the highe [...] mountains on the earth?
The Cordeliers of Peru, in America, whi [...] are a chain of mountains near 1500 leagues in length▪ One of theſe is, perhaps, the higheſt mountain in t [...] world. It reaches to the middle region of the air. [...] ſummit is 9660 yards above the level of the ſea, nearly ſix miles in height. There are other mounta [...] not quite ſo high. For example, Mount Sinai, in [...] ⯑pan; the Pike of Teneriffe, in Africa; Mount Ce [...] in the Alps; Mount Atlas, and many others: and, in obſervable, that we experience more cold in eleva [...] [85]places, particularly on the mountains, than in the val⯑ [...]ies or plains.
Why is this? As being nearer the ſun, I ſhould ſuppoſe the contrary.
Becauſe the air is keener, and the ſun's rays do not fall on them perpendicularly. It is thus we ſee the higheſt mountains almoſt always covered with [...]now. The cold is ſo exceſſive at a certain height on the Cordeliers, that men and animals will freeze, and become as hard as ſtone, without putrefying.
What good purpoſe do theſe high moun⯑tains and deep vallies anſwer? The earth would appa⯑rently be more beautiful and convenient, had the Creator made it uniform.
His profound wiſdom knew well to the contrary. Beſides the agreeableneſs to the view, which his irregularity of the earth affords; the mountains [...]heck the impetuoſity of the winds, and ſerve as a ſalu⯑ [...]ry ſhelter to the vallies round about, and frequently field them at times ſhowers, by the clouds preſſing againſt [...]em in their paſſage, which condenſes the water in [...]ch clouds, and cauſes it to fall in rain. They are alſo a [...]treat for wild animals, uſeful to men for their ſkins [...]nd their furs, and they yield a variety of plants [...]hich will grow no where elſe. Beſides, the hollows of [...]ountains contain immenſe reſervoirs of water; whence [...]oceed ſtreams, rivulets, and rivers.
How is that poſſible?
Have not I told you that the ſun exhaled [...]om the earth and ſea, and drew up into the air an [...]inity of watery particles; that theſe vapours con⯑ [...]ſed, form clouds, and fall again on the earth in [...]n and ſnow? the ſnow melts by degrees, and, with [...] rain which falls, gives a great quantity of water, [...]ich is collected in the hollows of theſe eminences, [...]es out again by its weight and fluidity, and [...]s ſprings and rivers. Theſe are increaſed by others [...]ich join them in their courſe, till they reach again [...] ſea from which they originally ſprang. Hence are [...]ived all thoſe waters that circulate in the boſom the earth, which is pierced with channels beyond [...]ber. Water will puzzle out its way through the [86]different ſtratus or beds of earth, ſand and ſtone, [...]ill it finds room to eſcape; then it forms a ſpring, whoſe waters run according to the declivity of the ground, or fall into wells, or reſervoirs, which they naturally make, where they find the leaſt cavity.
What, Sir, is a cataract?
A water-fall: ſuch, for example, as the Ca⯑taract of Niagara, in North America, which is, per⯑haps, the largeſt in the world. This is a fall of a whol [...] river, a mile and a half broad. It tumbles headlon [...] from a precipice, 137 ſeet high, and flows with ſuc [...] violence, as to make an arch beneath it, under which three men can walk abreaſt without being wet. Th [...] miſt it makes by its fall, riſes as high as the clouds and may be ſeen at fifteen miles diſtance. When th [...] ſun ſhines upon it, it forms a rain-bow.
If all water proceeds from the ſea, what o [...] ⯑caſions the freſhneſs of River water?
The Almighty has ſo contrived it for th [...] purpoſes of Man; by paſſing through the earth, it philtred and ſtrained of its ſaline particles and render [...] re⯑freſh, and ſuch watery particles as the ſun exhales form clouds, which afterwards fall in rains, are [...] lighter parts of the water, the ſaline particles being n [...] ⯑turally too heavy to be exhaled; and it is a wiſe pro [...] ⯑ſion of Providence, that the rain ſo exhaled, does [...] fall in large quantities, which would deluge a country but in ſhowers.
I ſhall, ſome day or other, explain to you the g [...] advantages we derive from ſtreams and rivers. Th [...] ſupply our wants as well as our pleaſures, and yield quantity of fiſhes of various kinds. Some riv [...] abound with ſome ſorts of fiſhes, others with differ ſorts, and ponds agree beſt with others. In places diſtance from the ſea, they ſupply our tables [...] river-fiſh in plenty. In ſhort, there is ſcarce ſtream that does not yield it. But the utility ſtreams and rivers, as formed by nature, and thoſe canals made by the induſtry of man, ſtops not h [...] They are of great ſervice in tranſporting of lime, [...]nure, merchandize, coals, and proviſions, from town to another, which would be very dear and ex⯑ [...]ive [87]if conveyed by land-carriage. They ſave a great deal of labour in other reſpects, by turning of mills, for grinding corn, for forges, fulling, making gun⯑powder, ſcowering leather, and linen, for making oil, paper, ſugar, ſpinning and twiſting ſilk, ſawing of planks, and other things.
Now you mention coals, you will doubt⯑ [...]eſs give me ſome idea of mines.
There are mines of gold and ſilver in all [...]he four quarters of the world. Gold and ſilver mines [...]ave been found in Norway, Sweden, and Hungary, in [...]urope, but the richeſt are thoſe of America. The [...]old mines of Chili are the moſt celebrated. The ore taken from the veins of a rock with great labour. Many rivers in foreign countries, and even in France, [...]oll a ſand and ſpangles of gold, which are collected [...]pon the ſhores, but in very ſmall quantities. Gold [...]nd ſilver have been found mixed with ores in the [...]ines of England, but not in ſufficient quantity to [...]nſwer the expence of ſeparating. Gold is the moſt [...]eavy, the moſt ductile, the moſt tenacious, and by [...]eſe qualities, the moſt valuable of all metals. It [...]ndergoes no change, either by air or water, nor even [...] fire. Would you think it poſſible to draw out an [...]ce of gold into a thread of 219 miles in length?
Wonderful! Has there never been found a [...]ethod of making gold?
Projectors have often attempted it, but [...]uld never ſucceed. This is called ſearching for the [...]loſopher's ſtone. It has been ſaid lately, that Dr. [...]ce, of Guildford, ſucceeded in his endeavours this [...]y, by mixing quickſilver with other materials, but [...]t the expence in obtaining it, was more than the [...]ue of the gold ſo obtained.
Is quickſilver a compoſition?
No; it is a mineral, dug out of mines [...]oad; the chief of which are in Hungary, Spain, Peru. It is found ſometimes pure, iſſuing out of [...]s of ſtone when broken, and ſometimes mixed with [...].
Where are the ſilver mines?
The moſt famous ſilver mine is that of [88]Potofi in Peru: though many others have been diſco⯑vered, which, they ſay, are more valuable. The min [...] of Potofi is more than 750 yards deep, not far ſh [...] of half a mile, and has been more than 200 years i [...] working; but they now begin to find its veins diminiſhing. It is aſſerted, that there are a great many ſilver min [...] in Germany, Saxony, and Hanover. A block of ſilve [...] was found at Nantz, ſo large as made a table, at which more than twenty perſons could ſit. Beſides gold an [...] ſilver mines, there are mines of iron, lead, copper, an [...] tin, which employ a great number of workmen. [...] am told there is a copper ſtream on the eſtate of Gentleman, in Wales, that by laying plates of i [...] in it, will, in a very ſhort ſpace of time, be encru [...] all over with copper, which is beaten off, and melt [...] down. This muſt be a ſtream iſſuing from a mine [...] copper, whoſe waters are ſtrongly impregnated wi [...] the mineral. You know the uſefulneſs of theſe metals. But the earth produces agreeable things as well as uſeful ones, ſuch as precious ſtones of all kinds; rubie [...] ſaphires, emeralds, topazes, hya [...]hs, amethyſts, an [...] many others of different colours. Some opake, font tranſparent, and more or leſs valuable, in proportion to their ſcarcity, their brilliancy, their beauty, and th [...] fancy of their admirers.
Are there no braſs mines?
No. Braſs is a compoſition of copper and a foſſile called Lapis Caliminaris.
You have forgot the diamond; is not t [...] the moſt valuable of all precious ſtones?
Yes. The moſt celebrated diamond mi [...] are thoſe of Golconda and Viſapour in the Eaſt Indie [...] In theſe mines, the men work naked, leſt they ſho [...] ſecrete any ſtone of value. The largeſt diamond [...] found, that we know of, is that among the treaſu [...] of the Great Mogul: it is in ſhape, and as large, a hen's egg out through the middle; it weighs 279 ca [...] (four grains each carat) and is valued at more th [...] 500,000l Diamonds will ſometimes imbibe the ſu [...] rays, and emit them again, ſo as to ſhine in the dar [...]
No ſtone can be really worth that mo [...]
It is vanity and luxury only that has ſlam [...] [89]a value upon ſuch riches: but there are other articles which we draw from the earth of real value; articles [...]hat contribute to the uſe of ſociety. Coals, for ex⯑ample, turf, peat; theſe ſerve for fuel. Marble of [...]ifferent kinds, ſtones, ſoft and hard, flints, &c.
Can you account for the formation of [...]eſe precious ſtones in the earth?
They are gradually formed, it is thought, [...] the meeting and union of oily juices, ſalts, and [...]nd. Water, which runs in the interſtices of the earth, [...]rries and mixes theſe different principles. They col⯑ [...]ct in ſmall pebbles, the water drains from them, and [...]eſe little maſſes dry and grow hard, and they are [...]loured by metallic ſubſtances diſſolved by water. In [...]ort, the quality, quantity, and arrangement of theſe [...]fferent principles, are the cauſe of the variety, the eight, the form, the colour, and brilliancy of pre⯑ [...]ous ſtones. It is the ſame proportionably with mine⯑ [...]s and petrifactions. But I think we have converſed [...]ough for this time; the next time we meet, we will [...] on with the ſubject, I mean terreſtrial productions.
DISCOURSE VII. The ſame Subject continued.
REMEMBER, Sir, what you promiſed yeſterday.
We were got, I believe, to the productions the earth.
We were. I take notice, Sir, that you [...]p, from time to time, as it were, raviſhed with ad⯑ [...]ration. May I dare to enquire the object of your [...]lections?
From this place where the ground riſes, I [...]mire with rapture the beautiful proſpect. My eyes [...]d my mind are at the ſame time enchanted. What [...]nting could deſcribe the vivacity, the variety, the [...]neſs of this great picture! Gardens, woods, mea⯑ [...]s, plains, vallies, hills, mountains, a blue ſky, and [90]a dazzling ſun! Great God, how wonderfully magni⯑ficent are thy works! But where ſhall I begin the deta [...] of ſo much beauty? Let us firſt contemplate the ferti⯑lity of the earth, the univerſal ſource of all good. This fertility, however, which we attribute to it, ſpring not from the earth, which is in it [...]elf a barren maſs.
You aſtoniſh me, Sir. What are th [...] cauſes, then, of this fruitfulneſs and ſurpriſing abu [...] ⯑dance?
Water, fire, air, ſalts, oils, and ſulphu [...] Theſe different principles, as I have told you, ex [...] in a greater or a leſs quantity in the boſom of th [...] earth. They collect, unite, ferment together, gh [...] through its pores, inſinuate into thoſe of the plant, [...] its roots, and nouriſh it. You muſt not believe, a [...] ⯑cording to the vulgar notion, that the moon has a [...] influence over theſe productions. It is an error. W [...] indeed has a principal part. Rain is the ſoul of all th [...] iſſues from the inexhauſtible boſom of this univer [...] ⯑nurſe. I told you, I think, from whence the rain p [...] ⯑ceeds.
You did, Sir. Drawn from the ſea an [...] all moiſt places, by the heat of the ſun, the [...] ⯑tery vapours riſe in the air, form clouds, and fall ag [...] in rain, ſnow, and hail, with particles of ſulphur a [...] fire, which, being introduced with other juices in vegetables, enliven them, and make them grow.
True. And to this, the action of the and wind, which puts theſe principles in motion, [...] you will deſcribe the cauſes of the wonderful fertili [...] of the earth. But it's natural fertility requires to ſeconded by cultivation. The Creator, in forming t [...] earth, made it fruitful, ſo as to be to man an inexha [...] ⯑ [...]ible garden of fruits and vegetables, equally nutri [...] as delicious, without any care on his part; but, [...] moment of his revolt, it changed its nature, and [...] was condemned to labour. It would not, but on [...] account, have borne briars and wild fruits: the bou [...] of the Creator, however, permitted, that the more was cultivated, the more it ſhould anſwer our labo [...] ſo that, with induſtry and perſeverance, we may [...] [91] [...]om it, not only all that is neceſſary, but all that is [...]omfortable and agreeable to life.
But muſt the whole be cultivated in the [...]me manner?
No. The earth varies infinitely in its ſoil, [...]at is, in its qualities. We divide the nature of lands to ſix different claſſes. Rich and poor. ſtrong and [...]ght, dry and wet; and theſe primative qualities mix⯑ [...]g together more or leſs, vary the ſoil. The buſineſs [...]en, of the huſbandman is, firſt, to know the quality [...]nd nature of his land, that he may give it ſuch culture [...] it requires, and ſow it with ſuch ſeed, as it will [...]eſt produce. Soils are different, according to the [...]imate, the ſituation of the ground, and the aſpect of [...]e ſun. Hence ariſes the aſtoniſhing diverſity of earthly [...]oductions. Some fruits will grow on certain lands, [...]d in climates adapted to their kind, which would [...]ow no where elſe. There are ſome things that will [...]ow in Africa and America, that will not grow in [...]rope; and Europe will produce a variety of things [...]hich cannot be found in other countries. All fruits [...]ry in their kind, form and colour, ſo as to have pe⯑ [...]liar properties, qualities, and flavour.
Pleaſe to remark, that there is no one habitable [...]ace, which is not adapted to the growth of ſomething [...]oper for the ſubſiſtence of men and animals which [...]uld there ſettle.
Let us examine now, if you pleaſe, the [...]thes which the earth affords.
We have a fine proſpect to examine. Open [...]ur eyes. Carry your view to the utmoſt extent. [...]re is a univerſal abundance. Among the trees, [...]at a prodigious quanti [...]y of every kind, in the woods, the foreſts, in the farms, upon the roads! What [...]ices may not men draw from thoſe lofty trees that [...]r no fruit! One is uſeful for building houſes; an⯑ [...]er for ſhips; ſome for furniture; and others for [...]l. Among foreſt trees, we have the Oak, the Elm, [...] Aſh, the Beech, the Fir, the Poplar, the Alder, the [...]ch, the Willow, and a quantity of others equally [...]ful, either to the Carpenter, the Joiner, the Wheeler, the Carver, and in other works as well for uſe as [92]for pleaſure. Among others is the Cork-tree, whic [...] grows in Spain, in Italy, and France; it is the ba [...] of this tree that yields the cork: the bark is ſtripp [...] off, and in a year it grows again. There a [...] trees of an aſtoniſhing ſize and height, and whic [...] live a long time. The Oak of king Stephen, the county of Northampton, is of an enormo [...] ſize and height, and in the extent of its branch [...] four thouſand perſons may ſit at eaſe under its ſhade it is ſaid to be more than 600 years old; and yet ther [...] are a number of Cedars in Mount Lebanon, in Paleſtin [...] larger and older. But of all trees, the moſt gigant [...] is the Baobab. One has been ſeen at Senegal, whic [...] ſeventeen; it was more than eighty feet in circumferenc [...] and yet they pretend to ſay, there are trees, ſtill large and as old as the deluge.
But, but, Sir!—
But what?—Do you ſuppoſe that I woul [...] deceive you?—It is by ſuch gaping ſurprize, that th [...] ignorant and unexperienced become ridiculous. At t [...] leaſt extraordinary thing, you ſee them ſtruck wi [...] wonder. All that goes beyond the reach of their c [...] ⯑pacity, all they have not ſeen, they conceive to [...] impoſſible. There are, Eugenius, to ſorts of fools thoſe who believe every thing, and thoſe who believe nothing. To believe that which is impoſſible, and co [...] ⯑trary to reaſon, is a ſtupid credulity. To reject extra⯑ordinary things which may be true, though perhap [...] improbable, becauſe we have not ſeen them, or b [...] ⯑cauſe we do not comprehend them, is an affectation ſtrongly marked with obſtinacy and ignorance. Be pe [...] ⯑ſuaded, my dear fellow, that I am neither a deceive nor a boaſter: I am not even one of thoſe who belie [...] every thing they hear; ſo that when I give you a account of any very ſingular matters, you may take for granted, that I ſpeak upon the beſt authoritie [...] What pleaſure ſhould I have in leading you into error I have taken too great pains to ſhew you the indigni [...] of an untruth, to give you an example of it in myſel [...].
Many perſons, like me, are in want this leſſon: I will endeavour to profit by it.
[93]If we conſider the different uſes to which foreſt trees are put, they are more neceſſary than fruit trees?
They certainly are. But what refreſhment, that delicates do fruit trees afford us! There are fruits [...]f a thouſand ſpecies, according to the ſeaſons, and ac⯑ [...]ording to the climates. Plenty of common fruit helps [...]n feed the poor, and ſerves the tables of the rich. A repaſt without fruit, ſeems to want ſomething eſſential, you know likewiſe, that we extract from certain fruits [...]ur beſt liquors; and, on this account, the vine alone, thoſe wood is ſcarce worth burning, deferves the high⯑ [...]st encomiums. Of the different branches of agricul⯑ture, the Vine, after Corn, is the moſt conſiderable, that which employs moſt hands. There are a great [...]riety of wines, which differ in colour, taſte, quality, [...]nd duration. The beſt wines of France are Burgundy, Champaigne, and Claret. Thoſe of Spain, are Malaga, [...]erry, and Mountain. Port is the produce of Portu⯑ [...]al; Old Hock of the countries adjoining the Rhine, Germany; and Madeira of the iſtand of Madeira [...]f other liquors made from fruits, we have Cyder [...]om Apples, and Perry from Pears. In Provence [...]ere is an abundance of Olive trees, trees, which yield the [...]reet oil.
Among a number of trees that grow in foreign coun⯑ [...]ies, the cocoa-nut-tree, ſo common in America, is [...]oft admired. It is, of all trees, that which is turned [...] moſt uſes; it's wood, it's leaves, it's bark, it's nuts, [...]ich are larger than a man's head, and which contain perfect fruit. An excellent liquor is made from the fruit, [...]d it affords milk for children. We find alſo, in the ſame [...]ntry, the Cacoa, whoſe flowers give the Cocoa, and [...]oſe fruit yields the Chocolate. The Coffee is another [...]markable tree. It grows fifty feet high, though its [...]ok is not more than four or five inches in diameter, yields fruit two or three times a year, in great abun⯑ [...]ce. The beſt coffee is that of Moka, in Arabia, [...]ich is brought to us through Turkey; though it is a cultivated in America. The Tea is another re⯑ [...]rkable tree, and is the produce of China, and [...] chief article of commerce carried on by the Eaſt [...]ia Company.
You have not named the trees of this country.
No, indeed: the liſt would be too long.
What are thoſe trees that are called e [...] ⯑oticks?
They are the produce of warm climate and are brought here merely as curioſities. Cold we [...] ⯑ther is ſuch a mortal enemy to them, that ſuch pe [...] ⯑ſons as wiſh to keep them here, are obliged to hou [...] them in the winter, and warm the places where th [...] ſtand, with fires.
Once, Sir, when I was walking in a garden ſaw the gardener cut off the head of a young tree, [...] the trunk, and place in it ſome twigs of a tree of a d [...] ⯑ferent kind.
That we call graſting. There are ſeve [...] ways of performing this operation; one of which called budding, that is, taking the bud of one t [...] and ſlipping it within the bark of another; but th [...] have all the ſame end in view, that of making a barren wild tree bear the beſt fruits. Every good garde [...] knows how to graft and to bud.
How, pray, does this change of nat [...] operate in the body of the wild tree?
It operates by the circulation of the [...] or juices that flow in the body of the tree, from root to its leaves. It is the ſap that enlivens it, n [...] ⯑riſhes, and makes it grow; it flows continually it parts of vegetables, as the blood circulates in the b [...] of animals. The true cauſe of the cirulation of ſap is yet one of the myſteries of nature. Even [...] of the blood we were ignorant of, till was diſcover by Harvey, an Engliſh phyſician, in 1628. It is th [...] [...] ⯑fore now know, that the blood is conſtantly flow from the heart all round the body and limbs, to heart again, and it is it's motion that gives the pul [...].
To think of the infinite variety of productions of the earth, one would ſay, that the [...] ⯑nificence and bounty of the Creator, had not on view the utility of man, but alſo his pleaſures; all [...] ⯑ture abounds with delights. The fields, ename [...] with flowers, ſeem natural parterres. When I ſee country in May, I think I ſee ſo many beds of jonq [...] [95] [...]nd other flowers, and thoſe blooming ſhrubs with which our gardens abound.
What would you ſay, was you to walk in [...]ome of the magnificent gardens in Holland; where a [...]oriſt will ſpend £ 500. a year in flowers. There [...]re an infinite variety of field-flowers equally as garden- [...]owers; ſome more fragrant and beautiful than others, [...]ut all perfect in their kind. Indeed all flowers, as [...]uits, were originally wild, and it is cultivation only [...]hat has brought them to their preſent perfection.
But you muſt know, that beſides their beauty: and [...]agrance, many of theſe flowers, as well as a variety [...]f plants, are of real uſe to man by their medicinal [...]roperties. There is ſcarce an herb but what has [...]me noxious or ſalutary virtue, with this diſtinction, [...]o [...]ever, that the number of poiſonous plants, as well [...] mineral poiſons a venemous animals, are very [...]w, in compariſon to others. Many noxious vegeta⯑ [...]es, were their virtues known, would, perhaps, cure [...]forders that now ſeem incurable. Arſenic, which is [...]tank poiſon, is of uſe in medicine; and quickſilver, [...]hich if taken without caution would kill, is a ſpe⯑ [...]fic in ſome diſoders. The effect of the ſimple bark of tree, which grows in Peru, and which we know by the [...]me of Bark, is a certain cure in intermittent fevers. [...]ubarb is the root of a ſhrub in Tartary, and Ipeca⯑ [...]na, which is an emetic, is the root of another ſhrub [...] Brazil. What an able phyſician, my friend, is the [...]ther and univerſal preſerver of nature!
He is truly our father from the care he takes us. When I conſider particular gardens, thoſe of [...]e kitchen and orchard, and caſt my eyes on the greateſt [...]rden of all, this immenſe country, where all ſorts of [...]oduction, abound; I do not know which to admire [...]oſt, the power or the goodneſs of the Creator.
Your reflexion is ſenſible. See what a pro⯑ [...]gious quantity of grain the ſurface of the earth [...]eſents us, now near the end of harveſt; the moſt [...]uable part of it, wheat, that which conſtitutes the [...]ff of life, and is the ſupport of man, is almoſt ga⯑ [...]red in. The reſt to be gathered, ſuch as oats, beans, [...]d the like, is deſigned for the feed of beaſts.
[96]But take notice of the profound wiſdom-of the Creat [...] in the fruitfulneſs of the plains in general. We have ſo [...] a ſtalk of wheat bear thirty-two ears, each ear containi [...] from forty to fifty grains; ſo that there has been [...] increaſe of 1600 from one. Increaſe, taken in genera [...] has been ſtill greater in Egypt; ſince, according [...] Pliny, one buſhel of wheat has yielded more th [...] 150 buſhels. It is an attention of Providence wo [...] remarking, that of all grain, that which is particular deſtined for the ſupport of man, is moſt univerſal a [...] moſt fruitful.
If wheat, then would keep a length of tim [...] and ſufficient ſtores were laid by in fruitful ſeaſon there never could be any fear of dearth.
if, do you ſay? It will keep a great whi [...] with care and management. We know that the Roma [...] have preſerved wheat in the ear more than fifty year by laying it in cavities in the ground, and covering with ſtraw; ſo as in a great meaſure, to keep it from [...] air, from wet, and from inſects. In 1707, was four in the citadel at Metz, a ſubterraneous place, wh [...] there was a vaſt quantity of corn. It had been th [...] more than 130 years. Louis the XIVth. of Fran [...] and all his court, eat of the bread made from t [...] wheat, and found it good. The Dutch, with wh [...] land is ſo ſcarce, that they have no ground to ſow co [...] ſupply their markets from diſtant places. They ha [...] large magazines, and a method of preſerving it. [...] this prudent conduct, they keep up at all times, equal plenty; and it is not much dearer at one ti [...] than another. They even have enough to ſupply oth [...] nations with it when wanted, and derive a profit exportation.
I remark, that the country not only ſ [...] ⯑plies us with neceſſaries, but with a thouſand conve [...] ⯑ent things.
It yields flax and hemp, with which make linen and cordage. The cole-ſeed produces [...] and a variety of other plants are uſeful in other wa [...] I ſhould never have done, was I to enumerate the ma [...] benefits of nature. And that wonderful variety there even in the form of her productions! No [...] [97]plant, not a leaf reſembles each other. If we reflect on that prodigious fruitfulneſs which the Creator has beſtowed upon the ſeed of each plant to perpetuate its ſpecies, we ſhall find it a miracle. It is calculated, that a ſingle Elm has in its body more than 15000 mil⯑lions of germs very diſlinct, each germ containing an Elm, which again contains a like quantity for re-pro⯑duction. —Let us now proceed to an examination of [...]nimals.
I am eager for the taſk. This part of the works of the Almighty, will afford us variety of ob⯑ſervations. How extenſive it is! Having diſcourſed of [...]iſhes, it remains to enquire into birds, inſects, and [...]our-footed beaſts.
You begin, Eugenius, to know the prin⯑ [...]ipal difference which characterizes the animal race. Thoſe which ſwim, thoſe which fly, thoſe which creep, and thoſe which walk. As we yeſterday examined [...]he firſt claſs, let us now run through the three others, beginning with birds.
Animals, in general, are naturally endowed with [...] particular inſtinct to know how to conduct themſelves, [...]o ſeek their own good, to foreſee and avoid danger, to [...]t [...]ach themſelves to their own ſpecies, and to perpe⯑ [...]ate it. They are ſenſible of pleaſure, pain, love, [...]atred, jealouſy, friendſhip, and frequently even of [...]ratitude; in ſhort, this inſtinct is ſo certain, and ſo wonderful, that we are often led to think it reaſon. Was I to ſpeak of all birds, I ſhould tire you with the [...]etail; I will therefore confine myſelf to thoſe which [...]re remarkable.
Thoſe birds, then, which live upon fleſh, we call [...]arnivorous, and thoſe which prey upon others, rapa⯑ [...]ous.
Why is the Eagle called the king of birds? [...]s it larger than all the reſt?
No; but it is the fierceſt, the moſt cou⯑ [...]agious, and the ſtrongeſt for its ſize. It is alſo a [...]ery ſwift flier. There are ſeveral ſpecies of them. In [...]gure, this bird reſembles a Parrot; it has a curved [...]ll, ſhort feet, with very ſtong hooked talons. It [...]as a piercing eye, lives a long time, and is an inhabi⯑tant [98]of cold countries. The Eagle chooſes the top of the higheſt trees, or the clifts of the ſteepeſt rocks to build its neſt in. There are a great many of theſ [...] birds in the North of Scotland, and in the mountain of Switzerland. The largeſt ſpecies of this bird ha [...] ſtrength enough to take up a ſheep or a child. A pea⯑ſant once knocked one down with a pole, that woul [...] have taken away a child of five years old.
It is, then, a very dangerous bird. I ſu [...] ⯑poſe there are more voracious birds?
We reckon birds of prey among this claſ [...]. Such as Hawks, of which there are ſeveral kinds, di [...] ⯑ferent in ſize, in plumage, and in ſwiftneſs. Theſe a [...] continually at war with other birds. Would you b [...] ⯑lieve it? There is a ſpecies of theſe rapacious birds, [...] example, the Goſhawk and Falcon, which they tu [...] ⯑out in purſuit of game; they train them up for [...] purpoſe: a man carries them upon his wriſt, and wh [...] and bird is in view, he lets the Hawk looſe, who fl [...] after the bird, darts down upon it, and brings it his maſter in his talons, who then treats the Ha [...] with the entrails of the bird it has caught for its pai [...]. This ſport is a royal diverſion. But among the c [...] ⯑nivorous birds, there is one more terrible ſtill.
Is it poſſible? What is it?
The Contor. It is a bird of Peru, perhaps the largeſt in the world. They have been ſ [...] when flying, to be more than thirty feet acroſs [...] wings. Judge of the ſtrength of this tyrant of air. When it has appeared, it has frightened w [...] herds of cattle, and their herdſmen. It has a b [...] calculated to rip open the belly of an ox. Tw [...] [...] them will deſtroy an ox. I have been told, they devour children ten or twelve years old. But, b [...] act of Providence, this deſtructive bird is very [...]. The female lays only ſufficient eggs to perpetuat [...] ſpecies, otherwiſe it would be too noxious an an [...]. There is one in the collection of the Royal Socie [...] London, which was killed at Chili, by ſome peop [...] the ſuite of an Engliſh gentleman.
Let us drop the ſubject of theſe birds, they make me ſhudder; and let me kno [...] [99]there is not ſome equally curious, though not ſo miſ⯑chievous.
I could name many, for example, the Caſ⯑ſiowary, one of the talleſt and largeſt birds in India. I have ſeen one in the king of France's Muſeum, more than five feet high. The Caſſiowary is remarkable for its long black ſhining feathers, that reſemble hair; but of all birds, the talleſt is the Oſtrich, common in Africa, although its body is rather ſmall. The Oſtrich, like the Caſſiowary, does not fly; but both are ſo ſwift of foot, that i [...] is difficult to keep up with them, even on the fleeteſt horſes. Oſtrich feathers are large and beautiful. We dye them of various colours, and uſe them for ornament: its down or hair ſerves to make hats or bonnets. This bird, like many others, will ſwallow iron, flint, and other hard ſubſtances, in order to aſſiſt digeſtion, but they do not digeſt it, as people have ſuppoſed. They ſay alſo, erroneouſly, that the imprudent Oſtrich depoſits its eggs in the ſand, and leaves them to the care of the ſun; when it is certain that they ſit on them in the night, though they leave them in the day, knowing that burning heat of the climate is ſufficient to hatch them.
Among our European birds, you have ſeen the Pea⯑cock, ſo remarkable for the beauty of its plumage?
and the horridneſs of its cry. I hate the bird on this account.
You would not ſay ſo of the Nightingale?
Oh no. If its cloathing be not ſo gaudy, [...]ts voice is enchanting. There is no inhabitant of the groves that can vie with it in melody.
They ſay, that beſides its melodious notes, he Nightingale has an excellent memory; that it will [...]etain a whole ſong, and repeat it with the ſame modu⯑ [...]tion of voice with which it was ſung. Having made [...]ou acquainted with the largeſt birds, I will now give [...]ou ſome account of the ſmalleſt.
What is it, Sir?
The Humming bird. This bird, ſo com⯑ [...]on in America, eſpecially the male, is a maſter-piece [...]f nature. It is wonderful, not only in the variety and [...]relineſs of its colours, but alſo in the littleneſs of its [100]body. It is not bigger than a ſmall nut. There is in Canada a ſpecies ſtill ſmaller, called the Bird-fly; which is not larger than a great fly. Its flight, how⯑ever, is extremely rapid. Could you ſuppoſe it? This ſmall bird will attack a crow, and beat it down from the middle of the air. It is ſo beautiful a bird, that the Indians make ear-rings of it.
And the Parrot, does it not merit our attention?
Certainly. It is, perhaps, the moſt won⯑derful bird in the world. Not only for the beauty of its feathers, but its faculty of imitating the human voice. This is a native of America. They reckon more than fifty ſpecies of Parrots, different in figure, in ſize, and in colour. They fly in flocks, and live in the foreſts. In a cage they will eat any thing, and may be fed with any thing except fleſh, which is not good for them.
I ſhould admire the Parrot beyond any bird, if it was not ſo dirty, ſo humourſome and ſo clamo⯑rous. Your are doubtleſs acquainted with other particu⯑arities among birds?
Shall we enter upon thoſe of Paſſage, who go and come according to the ſeaſons? Quails, for example, paſs from Africa to Europe in the Spring, and return towards the end of Autumn; you may ſee them traverſe the Mediteranean ſea in flocks. They are fre⯑quently taken on board ſhip, where they alight to re [...] themſelves. As they love a moderate climate, an [...] Africa is too hot in Summer, they paſs that ſeaſon i [...] Europe; and as the cold is too ſharp here in Winter they then go to Africa. There are alſo other birds o [...] paſſage, Wild Geeſe and Ducks, Cranes, Woodcock Snipes, and many more, whoſe inſtinct leads them [...] ſelect thoſe countries that agree beſt with them. So [...] fly in confuſed flocks; others preſerve order, and t [...] in rows, in order to cut the air the better. That whi [...] flies firſt is relieved from time to time by others.
It is imagined that Swallows, who appear in t [...] Spring, paſs a great part of the Winter in Europ [...] although ſuch as leave us about the end of Autumn: frequently caught, in great quantities, on the decks [...] [101]ſhips, tired with flying. The truth is, thoſe of the Northern countries of Europe do not go away in Winter. They are found in Sweden collected in heaps, hanging upon one another in a torpid ſtate, in hollow places: they quicken and appear again with the firſt warm weather.
It is very ſingular that all theſe birds foreſee the time to depart, collect themſelves together, fly night and day, and go to the place deſigned without wandering. Where is the traveller who, in ſo long a journey, would not be obliged to enquire his way?
They are certainly directed by Providence; for who, but him, can give ſo much fore-ſight to animals?
Say not only fore-ſight, but addreſs and ſagacity. You have taken notice of the ſtructure of a bird's neſt. Theſe architects have no other tools than their beaks and their feet. You ſee, however, how curiouſly they build their houſes, and how carefully they line them, that their callow young may lie ſo't. What maſon could build a ſwallow's neſt, which is con⯑ [...]tructed of mud, and hangs under the eves of houſes? The neſts of the Tit-mouſe and Wren are maſter-pieces of induſtry. The moſt able artiſt could not make one like them. How wonderful is the care and exactneſs of all birds in ſitting upon their eggs, and ſufficient [...]ngth of time to hatch their young: how attentive are [...]ey afterwards to feed them and bring them up! See [...]ith what reſolution a Hen will defend her Chickens from a Dog! Was it a Bull-dog, ſhe would put it [...] flight.
Shall I relate to you now the birds that live equally [...] land and by water? Such have their feet webbed, [...]at is, provided with a membrane ſpread between their [...]es, for the purpoſe of ſwimming. They are covered [...]th down and feathers, ſo compact as to keep out the [...]ter. Some have long beaks, adapted to raking in [...]t mud, where they find their food; others are fiſhers [...]d live upon fiſhes, ſuch as the Cormorant, the King⯑ [...]er, and others; others, again, live upon herbs and [...]ſuction, as the Water-hen and Sea-duck. There are [...]d that are enemies to the day, and fly only in the [102]night, as Owls and Bats. Of all birds, the Bat is the only one that does not lay eggs. This is rather a flying Mouſe, being covered with hair, and having the head and body of a mouſe. You have ſeen them I dare ſay. It flies about at duſk, and is called a Flitter-mouſe. It ſuckles its young and brings forth two at a time. There are ſeveral ſpecies of this animal, which ſeems to have nothing of the bird but the power of flying.
By the detail you have given me, I am now acquainted with moſt of the feathered tribe. Will you next give me ſome account of Inſects and Reptiles?
Nothing is more wonderful than the manner in which the Creator has peopled the univerſe, with animals of all kinds: and we may ſay, that Inſects, a [...] vile as they may appear, are one of the principal pro⯑ductions of nature. The greatneſs and wiſdom of God is not more conſpicuous than in theſe little animals.
There is an infinity of Inſects. The air, the earth, the waters, ſwarm with them. Some are pleaſing t [...] look at, others hideous, ſome are uſeful, others hurtful. There are infinitely more inviſible than ſuch as we ſee. Some fly, and others crawl. There is one inſect the moſt remarkable of any, and at the ſame time the moſt uſe⯑ful of any.
That is, I ſuppoſe, the ſilk-worm?
You are right. You know that it is from this, we draw, that moſt delicated thread, that compoſe our fineſt ſilks. The ſilk-worm was brought into Eu⯑rope from the Eaſt Indies, about the year 550, its la⯑bour is very curious. At firſt this inſect is only th [...] egg of a butterfly or moth; in the ſpring the he [...] hatches it, and it becomes a ſmall worm, a caterpilla [...] which grows very faſt and is nouriſhed by the leaves [...] the Mulberry-tree. When this worm has changed i [...] ſkin three times, its growth is finiſhed; it then ſpi [...] about itſelf a cod or pod of ſilk, in the middle of which it forms a retreat in ſomething like a tender ſhell, [...] encloſure in which it ſhuts itſelf up; thence it become a Chryſalis, that is, envelloped in a caſe, and after⯑wards a moth or butterfly; when come to this ſtate, pierces it cod and comes out: ſome days after, it la [...] its eggs and dies. A ſingle moth will lay more th [...] [103]500 eggs, which are preſerved till the next year. This metamorphoſis or change, is common ſo many kinds of inſects, as Caterpillars, Bees, and Waſps, which from worms hatched from eggs, become chryſales, and then Flies, or Flying Inſects.
You have no doubt, taken notice of the Ant. It gives us an example of induſtry. Ants will aſſemble many together to draw a little piece of wood, or a grain of corn to the bottom of their ſubterraneous granaries. It has been ſuppoſed that they hoard it up in magazines, to feed themſelves in winter; but we have known that they remain benumbed, and without eating all this ſea⯑ſon, heaped up upon one another in an ant-hill. In certain countries, there are larger Ants, that very much incommode the inhabitants.
And the Bees, Sir, is not their induſtry and labour very remarkable?
Very; a hive of Bees has been compared to a republick, where each ſubject labours for the com⯑mon good, and where all things are kept in good order. There is in all hives the mother Bee, which is called the queen, ſhe is larger, longer, and brighter coloured than the reſt. This mother lays all the eggs, from which the whole hive of Bees are hatched. She is ſo fruitful, that in the courſe of a year, ſhe will ſometimes give life to more than 40,000 Bees. The Bees have ſuch an at⯑tachment to their queen or common parent, that was ſhe to die, they would diſperſe or ſuffer themſelves to periſh. Wherever ſhe goes, they will follow her. Some men have ſearched for this queen Bee and having found it, placed it on their arm, and the whole ſwarm have there followed it. They will not ſting, unleſs rudely treated or roughly handled. When the hive it too full of Bees, the young ones will ſwarm out and eſtabliſh themſelves in ſome other place. Bees are very uſeful on account of the honey and the wax that they yield, and which they collect from flowers and depoſit in the money combs within the hive.
You do not appear to me, Sir, to have de⯑ſcribed, that quantity of flies and gnats, which we every where ſee. I admire very much the ſurprizing variety of figures and colours in Butterflies.
Would you ſuppoſe that in France, they carry collections of Butterflies to a fooliſh exceſs? There have been people who have ruined themſelves in collecting of flies. The fineſt Butterflies that we have ſeen in the cabinets of the curious, are from the Indies.
I have been often ſtruck in the evenings, with the brightneſs of Glow-worms.
It is only in great heat of weather, that Glow-worms throw out this light; but there are ſtill more luminous inſects in America. Travellers have related, that ſometimes the Americans have made uſe of no other light in their huts; and that to this day, when they walk out at night, they take one of theſe inſects in their hands, and faſten one to each foot. Theſe are by ſome called the Lantern-fly. They give as much light as a lamp; ſo as to enable us to read and write by them. There are other things that will give light in the dark, Lobſter-ſhells, Touch-wood, and other things. And there are ſubſtances that will take fire of themſelves when expoſed to the air, without any fire being com⯑municated to them; phoſphorus, for example, "which i [...] a chemical mixture producing a powder; but to retur [...] to our ſubject, ſince we are on the ſubject of reptiles I will make you acquainted with one that has drawn th [...] attention of naturaliſts more than all the reſt.
Pray what is that?
The Polypus. It is a little worm of the figure of a hollow tube. There are ſeveral ſpecies of them. This worm is ſometimes taken for an aquati [...] plant; it lengthens and contracts itſelf at pleaſure. I [...] breeds prodigiouſly, and what is moſt aſtoniſhing, con⯑trary to the common order of animals, it produces, with⯑out the aſſiſtance of a male. Cut a Polypus in five parts and each part will become a complete animal, which will produce others, before even the firſt ſhall be quit ſeparated from the trunk of the old Polypus. What have advanced concerning this worm, is the opinion [...] the ancients, though ſome moderns have ſuppoſed it [...] fable, and to imply a republic of little animals labourin [...] to form a colony, like the metropolis from whence the ſprung.
We may take notice here of another phenomenon [105]the reproduction of Snails. Naturaliſts aſſure us, that if we cut off the head of one, it will not die, but get a new one. A learned obſerver of modern times pub⯑liſhed a tract containing the ſentiments of many cele⯑brated natural hiſtorians. It has been ſaid that the four horns which the Snail ſhoots out and draws in at plea⯑ſure, are a kind of teleſcopes through which it ſees; but this obſerver maintains, the Snail hath no eyes, but that theſe horns are a kind of very ſenſible antennae which nature has given the reptile, and which it puts forth to feel whether any thing approaches it. If this be the caſe, it is perhaps of all animals the only one that is deprived of ſight, which even the Mole is not without.
This is very ſingular, but how is it that men apply themſelves to the ſtudy of objects ſo little important? For my part I do not ſee the uſe of it.
I agree with you that, in the ſtudy of na⯑ture, there are many things which are objects of mere curioſity, but the human mind is inſatiable for know⯑ledge; beſides, when in the examination of ſmaller ob⯑jects, we ſeek only to contemplate the infinite wiſdom of the Creator: this conſideration is not unuſeful to man, nor unworthy of him; ſince nothing that exiſts is judged unworthy of the great Author of nature. But let us not loſe our time in reflections.
Are there any other reptiles?
Yes, and very dangerous ones, eſpecially Serpents. Different countries have different ſpecies of Serpents: there are ſome which we have no reaſon to dread, they are ſo familiar. Some are winged, others amphibious. There are ſome more than twenty feet long, which attack and deſtroy the largeſt Quadrupeds; there are water Serpents, and Serpents of the ſea, of a prodigious ſize, and very formidable to ſeamen. Among other Serpents we reckon the Rattle-ſnake as one, ſo dangerous, and yet ſo common in America. In Nu⯑ [...]nidia many perſons have been deſtroyed by the bite of Serpents. The Viper, a kind of Adder, is viviparous, whereas all other Adders are oviparous. The Aſp is another ſpecies of ſerpent which the ancients conſidered is one of the moſt venemous. They ſay it throws the perſon they bite into a lethargic ſtate, and thus deſtroys [106]him. Hiſtory ſays, it was thus Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, put an end to her exiſtence, that ſhe might not fall under the power of Auguſtus. We hardly know now to what ſpecies of Serpents to give the name of Aſp; but that which we call the Aſp in Europe, and which reſembles the Viper, is not venemous. Beſides we never fail of remedies abainſt the venom of Ser⯑pents. It is remarkable, that in countries where there [...] the greateſt quantity of venemous animals, there [...] found the greateſt collection of ſimples and counter-poiſons. Many of theſe reptiles are very uſeful in medicine. We employ the Viper for the cure of many diſorders. The oil and powder of the Scorpion, whoſe bite is mortal, are excellent remedies. We cure the wound made by many animals, by bruiſing them upon the wound. Viper oil is a cure for the bite of a Viper. In ſhort, there is none, even to the toad, that is not of uſe in medicine. Snakes have been thought venemous, but there are perſons who hunt them and eat them.
Among inſects, is not the Spider, for exam⯑ple, poiſonous?
In certain countries, the Spider, is very large and venemous. What is related of the bite of the Tarantula is ſingular. It is a kind of Spider very com⯑mon in Calabria. They pretend to ſay, that it will make ſome ſing, others laugh, and others cry; and that the cure is brought about by the ſound of ſome muſical inſtrument; which ſets the patient a dancing, till he faints with exerciſe, but all this is mere trick. Theſe Spiders are no more dangerous than ours, which have been eaten with ſafety.
What a wonderful ſpinner the Spider is [...]. How is this accounted for?
The Spider is furniſhed with ſix nipples from whence flows that matter of which its web is drawn. The female Spider forms a cod of ſilk about its eggs. In the year 1709, a perſon at Montpelier collecte [...] enough of this ſilk to make a pair of ſtockings and [...] pair of mittens, which he ſent to the academy of ſcience at Paris.
This diſcovery would not probably have [107]been very uſeful in commerce. Have you finiſhed your obſervations on reptiles and inſects?
I ſhall ſoon have done. All I would further obſerve is, that in inſects and reptiles, the male is com⯑monly ſmaller then the female, whereas in quadrupeds, it is the largeſt of the two. I would add, that by the aſſiſtance of a microſcope, which is an inſtrument that magnifies exceedingly, it has been found, that there is an infinity of living animals ſwimming in all liquors, floating in the air, and ſwarming in the earth, much ſmaller than a hand-worm, which the eye can ſcarcely diſcern. Would you believe, that in a drop of the in⯑fuſion of an herb, of vinegar, or of blood, we diſcover by a glaſs, a multitude of animalcula or ſmall animals of different kinds, which move with great agility. Millions of inſects are ſpread thoughout the air, where they are inviſible, and the eggs which they depoſit in liquors, are hatched there by fermentation. In ſhort, when we come to conſider that every one of theſe living atoms has eyes, and the different parts of an organized body, that there are in theſe ſeveral parts, muſcles, nerves, veins, blood, and all things of which an animal body conſiſts, and almoſt imperceptible; what are we to think of the ſupreme artiſt that formed them!
We cannot ſufficiently adore his infinite powers.
But we ſhall have now a new motive of adoration and gratitude, in his magnificence and bounty. It remains that we examine into quadrupeds, that is, four-footed animals. He has created the greateſt num⯑ber to ſupply the wants and convenience of men. They are alſo exceedingly varied in figure, in nature, and in inſtinct.
Let us begin our review with thoſe animals that are uſeful.
It is natural ſo to do. Among theſe you muſt be ſenſible we owe the firſt rank to horned beaſts, and thoſe which furniſh us with wool. How great is this benefit to man! If a hen is a little treaſure to him, by laying, as ſome will, 300 eggs in a year, a cow is a great one, ſhe ſupplies us with milk, with butter, and with cheeſe, and gives us each year a calf. What a [108]conſumption is there at our tables of beef and veal! What is more healthy or more nouriſhing! If we are in want of horſes to cultivate the land, or draw heavy burthens, the ox comes to our aſſiſtance. It is em⯑ployed in draught in many countries. Though ſlower, it is capable of more fatigue than a horſe, and is fed at leſs expence. After he has worked ſome years, he is fatted and killed, and his fleſh is brought to market. Neither do his ſervices end with his life, his ſkin tanned is va⯑luable; this gives leather. In ſhort, the gall, the blood, the fat, the bones, the horns, the guts, the hair, and even the dung of this animal, is converted to ſome uſeful purpoſe.
You cannot ſay ſo much of the ſheep?
A agree with you as to ſervices of ſtrength; but in every other reſpect, this animal ſo timid and which ſeems ſo pitiful in itſelf, is very valuable to man, ſince it ſupplies us, at the ſame time, with food and raiment, not to mention the other advantages we draw from its tallow, its ſkin, its guts, and its bones. The fleſh of mutton is light, ſucculent, and of eaſy digeſtion. The milk of the ſheep is ſweet and wholeſome; be⯑fides, we know that the wool is one of the greateſt ob⯑jects of commerce, and how much its uſe is extended. It is different in quality, and Sheep themſelves vary very much in different climates; we call the male of the Sheep, a Ram. Many Sheep have horns upon their heads; ſome are covered with hair inſtead of wool. In Spain the wool is much finer than with us, and our beſt cloths are made of Spaniſh wool. The Tails of the Sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, weigh fifteen or twenty pounds, and are broad enough to turn back and cover their whole backs. In Tartary ſuch tails have weighed near eighty pounds.
You will have much to ſay, to doubt, of the Horſe.
You are ſo well acquainted with this animal that it is needleſs to deſcribe him. I will obſerve to you only that he is endowed with a wonderful inſtinct. The relate very ſingular acts of his good-nature and h [...] character. We have heard of an old horſe feeding be⯑tween two young ones, and that the young ones chewe [...] [109]his hay and oats of him, and preſented it to him in his manger. The Horſe is reckoned old at twelve years of age, though he ſometimes lives twenty or thirty. After ſeven or eight years old, he diminiſhes in value in proportion as his age advances.
The Aſs, I preſume, deſerves but little at⯑tention?
The Aſs does not deſerve the contempt it meets with. His long ears perhaps is one cauſe. This animal in however very uſeful, it lives upon little, and can bear a great deal of fatigue; and the milk of the female is reckoned very ſalutary to conſumptive habits. In ſome countr [...]es the Aſs is ſwift-footed. In ſome parts of France they run poſt with Aſſes, as they do in Spain with Mules. Arabian Aſſes are excellent for rid⯑ing; they get on ſo faſt, that no Horſes can keep up with them.
Mules are a diſtinct ſpecies, they are engendered be⯑tween an Aſs and a Mare. As Mules are of two natures [...]nited, they are very rare, for they never breed them⯑ſelves. They are reckoned very ſure-footed, and in Spain, they breed them with care, and ſell them at a great price.
You have named I think, the principal ani⯑mals: but there are more quadrupeds; the one do⯑meſtic, as the Dog, the Cat, and ſo on; others wild, as the Hare, the Rabbet, the Goat; and there are others again that are dangerous and hurtful, as the Wolf, the [...]ox, the Wild Boar—I hope you will ſpeak of all in [...]urns.
Was I to do this, I might go on till to⯑morrow. I cannot however paſs over all of the in [...]lence. You mention the Dog, for example. It is [...]ne of the animals endowed with moſt perfect inſtinct. One would even ſuppo [...] him to have reaſon; ſo much underſtanding has he, induſtry, and ſagacity. One phi⯑ [...]ſopher advances that beaſts are merely machines; [...]nother that the ſouls of devils lodge in the bodies of [...]imals; but we ſmile at the ſingularity, not to ſay the [...]xtravagance of their ſyſtems: the Dog is, of all do⯑meſtick animals, the moſt attached to men. He is ca⯑reſſing, [110]obedient, and ſubmiſſive. He is not even diſ⯑couraged by blows; but is the more ſerviceable.
That is true, for I have ſeen ſix Dogs har⯑neſſed to a ſmall loaded cart, and they have drawn it in obedience to the whip of their maſter.
I have ſeen a Dog, too, turn a ſpit, by put⯑ting him in a wheel, that runs round; but they render us greater ſervices. They hunt, guard the houſe and the flocks of their maſter. What fidelity they poſſeſs! They are the very emblem of this virtue. Many Dogs have broke their hearts and died for the loſs of their maſter. I had a Spaniel that ſuffered himſelf to die with jealouſy, becauſe I placed my affections upon ano⯑ther little dog. Many have defended the life of their maſter at the expence of their own; others have diſ⯑covered the aſſaſſin. In ſhort, there [...] thouſand re⯑markable things of the fidelity. the addreſs, and other qualities of the Dog. But let us leave him, and a mul⯑titude of other animals, which are ſpread through dif⯑ferent countries, and are natives of different climates and come to the king of animals.
You mean the Lion?
I do. Perhaps he might be better name [...] the tyrant of the woods. We call him the King, be⯑cauſe be has apparently more courage, and more ſtrength than all animals beſides. His air is noble and fierce. When he is angry, his eyes ſparkle. His roar alone will frighten the inhabitants of the foreſts. Every beaſt flie him: he is a great hunter, and preys upon every anima [...] he ſeizes. The Lion, however, is the emblem of gene⯑roſity, as he is the ſymbol of courage. There are man ſtories to prove him full of gratitude. The followin [...] in one among the reſt. A Knight of Malta being o [...] a hunting, heard ſome dreadful cries. He advance and ſaw a Lion entwined with a great Serpent; touche [...] with compaſſion he killed the Reptile, without wounding the Lion. From that moment the Lion became attache [...] to his deliverer and would not quit him. The Knigh [...] being about to embark on board a ſhip, they told hi [...] they had not ſufficient proviſions on board the veſſel [...] take charge of the Lion. They determined therefo [...] to leave him on the ſhore. The animal ſeeing the veſt [111]depart, ſet up a hideous cry, threw himſelf into the ſea, and ſwam after the ſhip till he could ſwim no longer, and was drowned.
What a wonderful act in a beaſt! It muſt be allowed, Sir, that animals frequently ſet us examples of a good diſpoſition, which we do not follow ſo cloſely as they do. You ſaid the Lion was the ſtrongeſt animal. Is not the Elephant ſtronger?
Yes, but then it is much larger. It is the talleſt and biggeſt of all animals. It is a living coloſſus. They have been ſeen more then fifteen feet high. There are many Elephants in Aſia and Africa, but thoſe of the Eaſt Indies are the largeſt. The figure of an Elephant is unlike that of every other quadruped. It is a heavy maſs, without proportion. It has two great teeth on each ſide of its mouth, which are its weapons of de⯑fence. Beſides this, it has a long noſe like a tube, with which it takes up its food, and which it uſes as a hand. The Elephant eats a great deal, though it can ſtay ſeven or eight days without eating or drinking. Although very heavy, it is ſwift of foot, and can gallop, but it does not turn readily. This animal, though wild, is very docile, being eaſily tamed. There is nothing to fear from it, but when it is irritated. We derive great ſervices from the prodigious ſtrength of the Elephat. It will carry more than 3000 pounds. Formerly they were uſed in war. Towers full of bowmen and archers were placed upon their backs, and they puſhed on among the thickeſt [...]atallions: men, horſes, machines, all give way to their [...]normous weight. The greateſt enemy of the Elephant, is the Tiger, the Lion, the Rhinoceros, Serpents, and [...]ſpecially Man, by the various means he makes uſe of [...]o kill him or to tame him. There are various ways of [...]king them. Hunting the Elephant is one of the great [...]eaſures of Aſiatic princes. The Africans, who take [...]im only for what he produces, dig in their way holes [...]hich they cover over lightly, and in which they fre⯑ [...]uently fall. Others dare to attack them openly. Some [...]onderful things are related of the inſtinct and cha⯑ [...]cter of this animal, of his docility, his underſtanding, [...]is addreſs, his affection and gratitude for his conduc⯑ [...]; we allow him even the ſenſe of ſhame. All theſe [112]qualities are the cauſe of the great veneration the Ele⯑phant is held in by many people. At Siam, 100 officers are employed in the ſervice of a white Elephant. He is lodged in a magnificent pavilion, walks under a ca⯑nopy, and is ſerved in veſſels of gold. Eaſtern nations are fooliſh enough to believe that the ſoul of their em⯑perors paſs after their death into the body of an Ele⯑phant. I ſhall cloſe this long account with telling you that it is a long-lived animal, and that its great teeth yield the ivory, of which ſo much uſe is made.
The Rhinoceros, is the moſt curious, and after the Elephant, one of the largeſt quadrupeds. It is more than ſix feet high and twelve long, and is ſaid to grow fifteen years, and live a hundred. It carries upon it [...] noſe a long, ſtrong horn, which is ſometimes double, and with this it attacks and throwns down the Elephant. Its horn is much ſought after, as many qualities are at⯑tributed to it, as well as the blood and its very ſtrong ſkin. It feeds much as does the Elephant, and is found in the ſame countries.
Are theſe the only extraordinary animal [...] that are found in foreign countries?
I am not acquainted with all; however [...] can name you another. That is the Camel, a very uſeful quadruped. His common height is about ſeven feet and a half from the crown of his head, which he carrie [...] very high. He has a very ſmall head upon a very long neck, and his body is about the bigneſs of an Ox. There are ſeveral kinds of Camels, thoſe of Arabia have a bunch upon their backs. They are ſometimes called Dromedaries. Thoſe of Perſia has two bunches. It [...] hair is ſhort and ſoft, and in the ſpring it falls off i [...] three days. Of the hair are made pencil bruſhes fo [...] painting, and ſome of the fineſt hats. This animal i [...] of little uſe but for burthen, and it will carry near 1200 pounds. In order to be laden it kneels down. It wil [...] travel from twenty-five to thirty leagues a day, and wil [...] go near nine days without drinking. The Camel eat but little, and feeds upon herbs, hay, and the leaves o [...] trees. It lives commonly fity years. They never bea [...] it to make it go on; the driver need only to whiſtle o [...] ſing. I will next mention a few ſtrange animals; o [...] [113]another kind. Such as are amphibious, like thoſe fiſhes deſcribed, who live, by turns, on land and in water.
If you pleaſe.
The moſt formidable of theſe animals is the Crocodile, which is found on the borders of the Nile and other great rivers. There are ſome monſtrous ones [...]n the marſhes adjoining the Ganges in the Eaſt In⯑ [...]ies. One was taken in the iſland of Madagaſcar, more [...]han fifty feet long, and much larger have been ſeen. Hiſtory relates that there was one on the borders of the [...]iver Megrada in Africa, a Crocodile ſo monſtrous, that [...] defended itſelf a long time againſt the efforts of a whole army. At that period, cannon were unknown, [...]nd they could only deſtroy it by knocking it down with great ſtones which they threw at the ſpine of its [...]ack. Regulus ſent its ſkin to Rome, and it was more [...]han eighty feet long. The Crocodile has ſhort feet, [...]nd its body is covered with ſcales as hard as to reſiſt [...]on.
What a ſtrange beaſt! Is the Crocodile as miſchievous as it is hideous?
It will devour both men and animals when [...] ſeizes them; it is very artful in obtaining its prey, it [...]ides itſelf and imitates a plaintive cry, to attract paſ⯑ [...]engers. Hence it is we ſay, affected diſtreſs, is only Crocodile's tears.
Such monſters may commit great ravages. Does it multiply faſt?
No; Providence has wiſely prevented this. [...] has taken care to give being to two other animals [...]qually amphibious, who are mortal enemies to the Crocodile. One is the Hippopotamus or Sea-Horſe. This animal is as large as an Ox, with a head ſome⯑ [...]hing reſembling a Horſe; its ſkin is an inch thick, and [...] hard, that a muſquet ball will ſcarce penetrate it. [...] is one of the moſt furious of amphibious creatures, [...]nd has terrible teeth, with which it attacks the Croco⯑ [...]le. The other is the Ichneumon, or the Egyptian [...]at, which is ſomething leſs then a Co [...]. This little [...]nimal is ſo miſchievous, that it attacks Serpents, Dogs, [...]nd even Camels. It devours young Crocodiles, and [...]eſtroys their eggs which it finds in the ſand. It is on [114]account of the eſſential ſervice it renders, in preventing too great an increaſe of Crocodiles, that the ancient people of Egypt have ranked the Ichneumon in the num⯑ber of their Gods. But, I muſt dwell no longer on animals. We will finiſh with the Beaver.
Is that an amphibious animal?
Yes; and is one of the moſt remarkable and at the ſame time one of the moſt ſagacious animal in providing for its ſafety and convenience. The Beaver [...] is truly an architect. They are more induſtrious than either the Bee or the Ant. They build houſes upon land, oppoſite to the current of great rivers, with ſtake and cement, and that with an art and cleverneſs that i [...] aſtoniſhing. And yet they have no other inſtruments fo [...] this purpoſe, then their teeth, their feet, and their tail [...] Their tail which is flat and large ſerves them for a trowel Their teeth is their ſaw, and with their feet, they brea [...] and ſoften the clay. Beavers work and live in ſocietie [...] with a wonderful order and police. They procure the [...] a ſupply of food at the approach of winter, which the paſs ſhut up in their cabins. Beaver hair makes fine hat.
What a prodigious number of animals the [...] are of all kinds! It is, however, to be lamented, th [...] there are ſo many dangerous ones. I think the Creat [...] ſhould not have given birth to them, or at leaſt ſhou [...] have endued them with better qualities.
It is preſumed that at the Creation, th [...] were endowed with a better diſpoſition. The Lion a [...] the Tiger were about of firſt parents, without givi [...] them the leaſt dread of their doing harm. No anim [...] would have been ſavage, had Adam and Eve not ſinne [...]. Their revolt againſt God occaſioned that of anim [...] againſt men. Some of theſe animals trouble him, [...] ſects incommode him, and all this is the unhappy [...] ⯑ſequence of ſin. However, let it be remarked, that an effect of the goodneſs of our Supreme Parent, [...] ⯑chievous animals encreaſe much leſs than thoſe wh [...] are uſeful, and that we have, at all times, means of p [...] ⯑ſerving ourſelves from the former.
You muſt permit me, Sir, to make one [...] ⯑flection more. That which I admire moſt in the cond [...] of the Creator, is the manner in which animals per [...] ⯑tuate [115]their ſpecies; but I do not know how it is that corruption engenders worms.
Corruption does not engender them. It is [...]n old error, which has deceived you. Nothing can ſpring from putrefaction; if it did, we ſhould ſee every⯑day new animals, which is not the caſe. The Creator [...]n forming the world, eſtabliſhed a general and immu⯑table law in all things, and by this law, every animal engenders, or begets its like, and will do ſo to the end of time. Thus all animals proceed from their father and mother. This is ſufficiently to be ſeen in the larger [...]nimals. If we obſerve occaſionally ſwarms of inſects [...]iſe from the midſt of putrefaction, it is, as I have told [...]ou, that female inſects of the ſame ſpecies have there depoſited their eggs, and that heat warming them, fer⯑ [...]entation has hatched them. Natural inſtinct teaches [...]nſects to chooſe out thoſe ſubſtances readieſt to corrupt, [...]nd of courſe beſt adapted to ſupply their young with [...]ood as ſoon as hatched. Be aſſured this is the caſe. There is none but uninformed perſons who ſuppoſe the contrary; but it is time to finiſh, I ſee we are cloſe upon the town.
We have, in imagination, made a very large [...]ourney; for in two days we have run through the hea⯑ [...]ens, the earth, and the waters; in ſhort; through the [...]hole courſe nature. We have caſt a rapid eye over [...]he works of God, and nearly in the order they were [...]reated.
And for what, my dear Eugenius, do you ſuppoſe all theſe wonders were produced?
For you, for me, in ſhort, for man.
You ſay right. God having produced all out of nothing, would next give being to a creature that [...]hould ſurpaſs the whole? He could not create him [...]reater, or more noble, than after his own image; in [...]oing this, he employed only his will; he made no uſe of his hands, but took a little earth, breathed into it the [...]reath of life, and man became a living foul: a moment [...]fter he gave him a companion, and theſe were the firſt [...]air. So done, he made him king and maſter of all that [...]he earth and ſea produces.
DISCOURSE. VII. ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THIS COUNTRY, THE PARLIAMENT, NOBILITY CLERGY, AND MAGISTRATES.
[116]I Very much long, Sir, that you ſhould give me ſome account of the Conſtitution of this country, for I think not to be acquainted with the na⯑ture of the government under which we live, is diſgrace⯑ful to a man of any underſtanding.
It certainly is; and as you have a deſire t [...] know, I will do my beſt to inform you.
Political writers of antiquity will allow but three re⯑gular forms of government, Democracy, Ariſtocracy, and Monarchy. When the ſovereign power is lodged in a [...] aſſembly of all the free members of a community, it is called a Democracy; when in a council compoſed of ſelect members, an Ariſtocracy, and when entruſted in the hand of a ſingle perſon, it is ſtiled a Monarchy.
What are the advantages of each kind o [...] government?
In a Democratic ſtate, which is a republican government, where the right of making laws reſts in th [...] people at large, public virtue or uprightneſs of inten⯑tion is moſt likely to be found; but though public ſpi⯑rit and a degree of patriotiſm is generally to be found in the aſſemblies of the people, ſuch aſſemblies are of ten abuſurd in their contrivance, and weak in their ex⯑ecution.
In ariſtocratic governments, they being compoſed (o [...] intended ſo to be) of the moſt experienced citizens, an [...] men of the greateſt property, more wiſdom is to be ex⯑pected, but leſs honeſty and leſs ſtrength than in a mo⯑narchy; for where the government is veſted in a few men will be apt to conſider their own intereſt.
A monarchy, of courſe, is the moſt powerful of any being a conjunction of the powers that make laws an [117]carry them into execution placed in the hands of the [...]rince; but in monarchies there is danger of the prince's [...]mploying thoſe powers to impolitic or oppreſſive pur⯑ [...]oſes. Thus have theſe three ſpecies of government their ſeveral perfections and imperfections.
Of what kind, then, is the Britiſh Conſti⯑tions?
It is a mixture of the whole; has all the per⯑ [...]ctions of one, without the imperfections of either; [...]r the executive power, that is, the power of carrying [...]e laws into execution, being lodged in a ſingle perſon, [...] inſtance, in the king, the laws have all the advan⯑ [...]ges of ſtrength and diſpatch, to be found in the moſt abſolute monarchy; and the legiſlature or power of [...]aking laws, being entruſted to three diſtinct powers, [...]ally independent of each other, namely, King, Lords [...]d Commons; the Lords being an ariſtocratical aſſem⯑bly of perſons ſelected for their piety, their wiſdom, their valour, and their property; and the Houſe of commons being a kind of democracy choſen, by repre⯑ [...]nting the people at large, who are a body actuated by [...]frent ſprings, and attentive to different intereſts, no convenience is to be dreaded from either, each power [...]ving a negative voice, ſo as to contradict and oppoſe, [...]it pleaſes, any improper or dangerous innovation or [...]croachment of the other two.
The executive power then in our conſtitution, that is [...] power of enforcing the laws, is veſted in the king [...]ne, who is of courſe the ſupreme magiſtrate, but the [...]giſlative power, that of making theſe laws, reſts in the [...]ng, Lords, and Commons, which is the parliament [...] Great Britain.
Muſt a law or an act of Parliament then, [...]e the concurrence of King, Lords, and Commons?
Yes; otherwiſe it would be no law. Thus [...]n ſee that the Commons are a check upon the Lords, [...]d the Lords upon the Commons, by the privilege each [...] of rejecting what the other has reſolved, whilſt the [...]g is a check upon both, preſerving thus the execu⯑ [...]e power from incroachment. Nay, the two Houſes [...] Parliament, Lords and Commons, have a privilege [...] calling the King's evil miniſters and counſellors to [118]account, and puniſhing them for any had conduct, check⯑ing thus the executive power itſelf.
Of what does the Houſe of Lords conſiſt?
Of the Spiritual and Temporal Lords of t [...] realm. The Spiritual Lords are the two Archbiſhop and twenty-four Biſhops; the Temporal Lords are [...] the Dukes, Marquiſſes, Earls, Viſcounts, and Baron whoſe number may be increaſed at the will of the Kin [...]. Sixteen of theſe Lords or Peers are choſen by the Pee [...] of Scotland, and ſit as their repreſentatives ſince the uni [...] of the two kingdoms. The other Peers ſit there virtue of their peerage.
When did the union take place?
In the year 1707. Before this time a ſe [...] ⯑rate Parliament was always held in Scotland, as ther [...] in Ireland; for on the death of queen Elizabeth in 16 [...] James I. then king of Scotland, became by ſucceſſ king of England, and the two nations belonged to [...] ſame crown. By an agreement therefore in 1707, [...] ⯑tween the Parliament of England and that of Scotla [...] the two nations were united under one Parliament, [...] that of Scotland was aboliſhed; ſo that the Peers Scotland elect ſixteen Lords to repreſent them in [...] Parliament, and the people of Scotland elect forty-members that ſit in our Houſe of Commons to repre [...] the Commons of Scotland. Ireland has a Parliam [...] of its own, as Scotland had before the union.
Are there not more Lords than ſit in Par [...] ⯑ment?
None ſit in our Houſe of Lords but the P [...] of England. The Iriſh Peers ſit in their own coun [...] but not here; none of the Scotch Peers ſit, but the [...] ⯑teen choſen ones; and as to other Lords, the titles [...] merely titular, being the ſons and brothers only of Pe [...]
Of what does the Houſe of Commons [...] ⯑ſiſt?
The Commons of England conſiſt of all men of property throughout the kingdom, as have ſears in the Houſe of Lords, every one of whom [...] vote in Parliament: but as the people of England too numerous to aſſemble to do buſineſs in one p [...] certain diſtricts chooſe two Repreſentatives, who [...] [119] [...]n Parliament and vote for them. Theſe diſtricts are [...]he counties, cities, and borough towns. The counties [...]re repreſented by perſons who have 600 pounds a year [...] land, choſen by the freeholders, that is, men who poſſeſs a free eſtate of not leſs than forty ſhillings a year, [...]nd thoſe perſons when elected are called knights of the [...]ire or county, and repreſent the landed property of the [...]ingdom. The cities and borough towns, are repre⯑ [...]nted by perſons poſſeſſing an eſtate not leſs than three [...]undred pounds a year, elected by the freemen of thoſe [...]ties and towns, that is, by the mercantile part of the [...]eople, and thoſe perſons ſo elected, are called Burgeſſes. [...]o that the Houſe of Commons, with the forty-five mem⯑ [...]ers elected by the people of Scotland, conſiſts of five [...]undred and fifty-eight. The Preſident or Chairman of the Parliament is called the Speaker.
How often are theſe people choſen?
Once in ſeven years; but the King has a [...]rivilege to diſſolve the Parliament, when he pleaſes, [...]nd they never meet till he thinks proper to call them [...]ogether.
Suppoſe he was never to call them?
Then there could be no Parliament. In [...]ormer times the nation has been without a Parliament [...]or many years; but as the King now cannot eſtabliſh [...]ny tax or raiſe any money without the conſent of the [...]eople, or Parliament, and as money is always wanted for [...]he purpoſes of Government, he finds it neceſſary to call [...]he Parliament together every year. King Charles the [...]irſt made an attempt to raiſe money without the con⯑ [...]nt of the People, or Parliament, and the conſequence [...]as, that the People and the King went to war, the King [...]as taken priſoner by the Parliaments army, and be⯑ [...]eaded. This was in the year 1649.
Do the Members of each Houſe vote ac⯑ [...]ording to their conſciences?
They ought to do ſo, but it is a doubt [...]hether they always do or not. The King has ſuch a [...]umber of valuable appointments in his gift, places of [...]ofit and power, which are generally given to the Mem⯑ [...]ers of both Houſes of Parliament, and which he can [...]ke away again at his pleaſure, that he generally com⯑mands [120]a majority of votes in both Houſes, and it is th [...] influence of the Crown, that makes the people diſſ [...] ⯑tisfied: for when the King can influence the Member [...] of the Houſe of Commons, he can induce them to fu [...] ⯑niſh him with any ſums of money he pleaſes, be it ev [...] ſo oppoſite to the inclinations of the people they repr [...] ⯑ſent, and this has too often been done, and is call [...] venality.
And have the people no redreſs?
None, but that of turning out the Me [...] ⯑ber who voted ſo contrary to their wiſhes, at the ne [...] new Parliament.
And do they?
Very ſeldom; for theſe members profit [...] their ſituation and find it their intereſt to bribe the pe [...] ⯑ple to elect them again. Some gentlemen will ſpe [...] from 10,000 pounds to 30,000 pounds, to gain a ſeat [...] Parliament, and this money goes among the Electo [...] Indeed the members of the Houſe of Commons loſe th [...] ſeat there upon taking a place or office under gove [...] ⯑ment; but the influence of money is ſuch that they [...] themſelves re-choſen.
But there ſhould be a law to puniſh th [...] who bribe the Electors.
So there is; but they generally find mea [...] to evade that law.
I have heard of Torys and Whigs; W [...] are they?
By Tory is underſtood the party in fav [...] of the King; and by Whig, that in favour of the Peo [...] Two names of reproach firſt given in the laſt century
Do not Judges ſit in the Houſe of Peers
Yes; but they have no vote, they ſit th [...] only to give their advice in matters of law, when t [...] advice is aſked for.
What are their ſalaries?
The Chief Juſtice of the King's Bench 4000 pounds a year, the Chief Juſtice of the Com [...] Pleas 2500 pounds, the Chief Baron of the Exche [...] 3500 pounds, and the puiſne or under Judges [...] pounds a year each.
[123]Ev [...] when formerly there was no other religion in the Country?
Becauſe they experienced the inconveni⯑ences, and became ſenſible of the abſurdities of this religion. Until the year 1534, when Henry VIII. ſhook off the Pope's power over the people of this kingdom, the eſtabliſhed religion in Great Britain and Ireland was the Romiſh; but the people examining into the na⯑ture of it, diſcovering its many errors, and finding the King as ready as they were to introduce the Proteſtant religion, which had at this time gained a footing in Ger⯑many, the Parliament co-operated with him, in reform⯑ing the church and altering the religion of the coun⯑try. This event is called the Reformation.
Why was the Reformed Religion, called the Proteſtant?
Becauſe, at the Diet or Aſſembly of the German States at Spires in 1530, ſeveral proteſted againſt a decree of the Diet, to ſupport the doctrines of the church of Rome.
It does not appear that all the people of England, are of the ſame opinion; for there are many Diſſenters from the church of England.
There are, and theſe are Preſbyterians, Anabaptiſts, Quakers, and Methodiſts.
And what diſtinction is there between them?
To enter into all the diſtinctions, would take up a great deal of time. The great ones are, that the Preſbyterian doctrine excludes Epiſcopacy, that is, admits of no Biſhops nor any form of prayer, and is the eſtabliſhed religion of Scotland Anabaptiſts, will not admit of Infant Baptiſm, but baptiſe their followers when at full age. Quakers, admit of no preachers, but ſuch as think themſelves inſpired; they are called Quakers, from their affecting to quake, when the Spirit a ſuppoted to give them utterance, at other times they are ſilent at their meetings; and as to the Methodiſts, they pretend to profeſs purer doctrines than thoſe of the church of England; but they are all Proteſtants not⯑withſtanding, and deny the authority of the Pope and of [...]e church of Rome.
There is no variety of religion in Roman Catholic countries. Why is there here?
Becauſe thoſe States will not ſuffer it; but it is one of the bleſſing of our conſtitution to be in⯑dulged in a liberty of conſcience. All religions are allowed here, even the Roman Catholic in private chapels, and under certain reſtrictions, and this general indulgence is called Toleration, from their being here tolerated. But we are wandering from the ſubject we were upon, that of the duty and privileges of the King of England. His duty I told you. His privi⯑leges are as follow.
The King is the chief and ſole magiſtrate of the na⯑tion, can of his own authority, reject any act of Par⯑liament preſented to him for ſigning, and in ſuch caſes, it never paſſes into a law; he can make any treaty with foreign powers, create any Peers, and pardon any of⯑fence, except where the conſtitution interferes. The King can alſo make war and peace, without the conſent of his Parliament; but though he can declare war, he cannot carry it on without money, and this money he cannot get without the people's conſent; this therefore obliges him never to make war but with the approbation of Parliament. He has the appointment of Ambaſ⯑ſadors to foreign Courts, who repreſent the King that ſends them, and protect their countrymen when oc⯑caſion requires it.
The King is conſidered as the head of the Church Army, and the Navy, and as ſuch has the appointmen [...] of all the Biſhops, and Officers. He is alſo conſidered as the fountain of honour, and of courſe confers all titles.
How is the King ans his family ſupported▪ Has he any eſtates of his own?
As Elector of Hanover, he has a prett [...] conſiderable revenue, but not ſufficient to ſupport hi [...] and his dignity as King of England: there are ſom [...] eſtates in this country that belong to him as King; b [...] his chief ſupport is from the people, of whom he [...] obliged, when he comes to the Crown, to aſk for a b [...] ⯑coming maintenance: the Parliament are always read to ſupport his dignity for the honour of the Crown, an [...] [125]at this time, they allow him annually, 900,000 pounds a Year; out of which he pays all the State Officers, the Judges, and all the expences of his family. And whenever any of his children arrive at manhood, Par⯑liament always makes a ſeparate proviſion for them: the Prince of Wales has 50,000 pounds a year.
The taxes I preſume are appropriated to the expences of government, and to pay the intereſt of the National debt?
They are.
Can you give me a general account of the taxes?
The firſt great tax is a Land Tax, by which gentlemen who have eſtates pay four ſhillings in the pound, or 100 pounds out of every 500 pounds, this with the tax upon Malt, raiſes about 3,000,000 pounds.
There is next a tax on the exportation and importa⯑tion of Merchandize. This is conducted by the Com⯑miſſioners of the Cuſtoms.
Then there is an Exciſe duty, that is, a tax on Beer, Cyder, Perry, Spirits, Silks, Linens, Starch, Hair-Powder, Carriages, things ſold by Auction, travelling in Poſt Chaiſes, Men Servants, Coffee, Tea, Chocolate, Wines, Paper, Vinegar, Glaſs, Hops, Candles, Soap, Leather, Malt, and a variety of other articles. Theſe are under the controul of the Commiſſioners of Ex⯑ciſe.
Another tax is four ſhillings and two-pence on every buſhel of Salt.
Another are the Stamp duties, under the Commiſ⯑ſioners of the Stamp Office. This is a tax on Writ⯑ings relative to Law-Suits, and agreements of every kind, upon Almanacks, News-Papers, Advertiſements, Pam⯑phlets, Cards and Dice, Receipts, and Bills of Exchange.
There are others upon Houſes and Windows, Hackney Coaches, and Chairs, within the Bills of Mortality, Le⯑ [...]acies, and one ſhilling in the pound out of all ſalaries [...]nd perquiſites of Offices and Penſions paid by the Crown.
What do you mean by the Bills of Mor⯑ [...]lity.
Theſe are accounts or regiſters kept by the Clerks of every pariſh within the cities and ſuburbs of [126]London and Weſtminſter, ſpecifying the numbers born, married, and buried annually; of courſe, by within the bills, I mean, within the diſtricts where theſe regiſters are kept.
A very uſeful inſtitution! Pray what do the taxes amount to in the whole?
To upwards of ten millions of pounds an⯑nually.
What an enormous ſum!
Having now given you an account of the Chief Magiſtrate; ſhall I make you acquainted with ſuch as are below him?
If you pleaſe.
The Sheriff of the county then is the firſt. His office is that of Chief Gaoler and he has the cuſtody of all criminals and delinquents in the diſtrict within his command. Though I call him Chief Goaler, he is, by virtue of his office for the time being, the firſt man in the county, and ranks before every nobleman therein. There is one preſiding over every county, and is ap⯑pointed by the King, out of the gentlemen reſident in that county. The county priſon, and the keeper of that priſon are under his controul, and it is his duty to execute the ſentence of the law upon all criminals, himſelf, or to find one to do it for him, though that ſen⯑tence extend even to death. Moſt gentlemen aſpire to the office of Sheriff, though it is attended with the ex⯑pence of 5 or 600 pounds for the year they ſerve. There are two Sheriffs for the City of London, choſen by the City.
The next officer to the Sheriff is the Coroner. Every county has more than one. Some have four, ſome ſix, according to the extend of the county. He is choſen by the freeholders, and his office is for life, though he may be removed for miſconduct. His duty is to en⯑quire into the death of ſuch as are killed, die ſuddenly, or in priſon; he has fees upon the occaſion, ſo that his place is a place of emolument.
The next order of ſubordinate Magiſtrates, are Juſ⯑tices of the Peace, the chief of whom is the Cuſtos Re⯑tulorum, or the keeper of the county records.
Can any one be a Juſtice of Peace?
No: Hemuſt have a property of 100 pounds a year to qualify him; and is appointed by the Lord Chancellor, at the recommendation of the Lord Lieu⯑tenant of the county.
What is the Lord Lieutenant?
He is generally ſome man of rank in the county, and is appointed by the King during the plea⯑ſure of the Crown.
What is his office?
He acts under the King in a military ca⯑pacity. Beſides appointing the Magiſtrates for the county, he appoints all the Officers in the county Militia, and is himſelf the Colonel, and in caſe of any invaſion by a foreign enemy, would take the military command of the county. This is held to be a very honourable employ, and is much coveted by men of the firſt rank.
You have frequently mentioned rank, is it of any uſe to a man?
Of great uſe. Precedence in rank is more attended to by great people then you are aware of. Precedence generally takes place in the following order. Princes, Archbiſhops, Dukes, Marquiſſes, Earls, Viſ⯑counts, Biſhops, Barons, Knights of the Garter, Privy Counſellors, Judges, Baronets, Knights of the Bath, Knights, Doctors, Eſquires, and Gentlemen. The no⯑bility are very particular to preſerve their rank on all public occaſions: and you will find a title reſpected every where. Beſides, if there are any offices of profit in government, the church, the army, or the navy, the nobility can procure them for themſelves or their rela⯑tions in preference to other people; and all the depart⯑ments about the King are commonly filled with them. And add to this, they have a number of privileges. A Peer, like a Member in the Houſe of Commons, cannot be arreſted and thrown into priſon for debt; they have [...]ll their poſt letters free of expence, and can frank or free the letters of others. A peer, if guilty of a cri⯑minal act, is tried always by the Houſe of Lords, and can command an audience of the King at any time, that [...], can ſee him and ſpeak to him, without fearing to be [128]refuſed admittance: and they, as well as Clergymen, re⯑ceiving the benefit of clergy, are not burnt in the hand.
I do not comprehend what you mean by Benefit of Clergy.
What is called Benefit of Clergy, had its riſe in the pious reverence of chriſtian princes for the church in its infant ſtate, being an inſtitution to exempt the Clergy from being criminally proceeded againſt by ſecular or lay judges. Popiſh excleſiaſtics ſoon made an ill uſe of this, for they afterwards claimed this indul⯑gence, not only for themſelves, but for all attendants upon the church, whether they were Clergymen or not; and in length of time, this exemption grew gene⯑ral, and all who could read had the ſame indulgence, reading being a great mark of learning in thoſe days of ignorance, till an act of Parliament of Henry VII. made a diſtinction between Lay-men and Clergymen, ſubjecting the former for certain crimes deſerving death, to be burnt with a hot iron on the left thumb, and deny⯑ing them this privilege a ſecond time, and they are now not even required to read, but the indulgence is gene⯑rally granted to all perſons both men and women. Clergymen, however, if found guilty of ſuch offences as claim this benefit of clergy are not burnt in the hand, but immediately diſcharged, and this as often as they offend; whereas others ſuffer death for the ſecond of⯑fence: and as to Peers when found guilty, they are diſ⯑charged without burning in the hand, but if condemned for the ſame offence of ſecond time, will, like other lay⯑men ſuffer death.
How do perſons procure title?
By intereſt, that is to ſay, by their influ⯑ence with the King or the Miniſters of State; and ſome⯑times by ſervices which they have done the State.
Of what kind is this influence?
Many Gentlemen from their extenſive pro⯑perty can command the votes of freeholders, and free⯑men of towns, which ſend members to parliament, of courſe, they can appoint ſuch members, and theſe mem⯑bers will naturally give their vote as the perſon ſhall direct, to whom they owe their ſeat in the Houſe of Commons. The King therefore will often beſtow a [129]title upon the Gentleman who appoints thoſe members, in order to obtain [...] votes; but titles are frequently given for ſervices done to the State, for example, to great Stateſmen, Generals, Admirals, and men learned in the Law. The Chancellor is always made a Peer, which generally adds two or three to the Houſe of Lords every reign, and ſometimes the Judges are made Peers.
I do not at all wonder then, that men of great fortune are ambi [...]ious to be created Peers, if ſo much reſpect is due to their rank. Are there any more public offices beſides thoſe you have named?
Yes, but the next are of lower order; I think the next is the Conſtable, of which there are two degrees, High and Petty: High Conſtables are appoint⯑ed by the Bench of Juſtices at the Quarterly Seſſions of the Peace, which are held quarterly at the principal town in the county, for the adminiſtration of juſtice in matters of ſmall concern. They preſide over a diſ⯑trict called a hundred, conſiſting of ſeveral pariſhes. Petty Conſtables are inferior officers in every town and pariſh, ſelected by the High Conſtables from the Pari⯑ſhioners, and are ſubordinate to the High Conſtables. They are appointed by two Juſtices to ſerve one year: the duty of a Conſtable is to keep good order in the pariſh, and for this purpoſe he can take up diſorderly perſons, confine them and carry them before a Magi⯑ſtrate. This office is not held very reputable; and fre⯑quently thoſe that are appointed, for all muſt ſerve in their turn, will pay a fine or ſum of money to be ex⯑cuſed ſerving; in this caſe another takes the office.
The next public officers are the Surveyors of the High-way.
What are theſe?
Every pariſh is bound to keep the High Roads through it in repair, except the Turnpike Roads; and Surveyors are appointed to ſee this buſineſs pro⯑perly done. There are generally two in every pariſh, appointed out of the ſubſtantial inhabitants, by two neighbouring Juſtices of the Peace.
The laſt officers I ſhall now mention are the Over⯑ [...]ers of the Poor. Till the reign of Henry VIII. the [130]Poor ſubſiſted throughout England upon private cha⯑rity; but under Queen Elizabeth, Overſeers in every pariſh were appointed from ſubſtantial houſekeepers yearly, in Eaſter week, by two neighbouring Juſtices. Their duty is to raiſe money in the pariſh, by collecting from every one, in proportion to the rent of the houſe lives in, for the relief of their own Poor, who are not able to work, and to provide work for ſuch as are able, and cannot get employ.
Now you mention poor, Sir, I could wiſh to know what Gipſies are?
Gipſy is a corruption of Egyptian. Theſe are a peculiar race of people, ſuppoſed to come origi⯑nally from Egypt, and to be endowed with the gift of Prophecy; they made their appearance firſt in Germany, about 1517, but have been ſince baniſhed from all parts of Europe. What are called Gipſies now are a ſet of vagabond poor, who live in the open air, wandering about in companies, from one part of the country to ano⯑ther, pretending to tell ſilly people their fortunes, and ſubſiſting wholly upon plunder: they are liable by our laws to be taken up, and if they have cheated any one of money, to be hanged.
You have omitted to ſpeak of the Church-Wardens.
I ſhall ſpeak of them after I have menti⯑oned the Clergy; for Church-Wardens are officers of the Church.
I beg your pardon; are you going to ſpeak of the Clergy now?
I am; the people are divided into two claſſes. The Clergy and the Laity. The Clergy being an order of men ſet apart to attend the ſervice of God, have certain privileges allowed them. Among the reſt, one is, not to be liable to ſerve temporal ofices, as Sheriff, Conſtable, Overſeer, and the like; but then they have certain diſabilities on account of their ſpiritual avocations; they are incapable of ſitting in the Houſe of Commons, nor can any Rector or Vicar take any lands to farm, or follow any way of buſineſs.
Some of the Clergy do hold farms not withſtanding.
They are allowed to hold ſufficient land to maintain their families, and under this pretence, will often buy and ſell like other farmers, but they are liable to pay ten pounds a month to the King for ſo doing.
Are there not ſeveral ranks of Clergymen?
Several. Archbiſhops, Biſhops, Deans, Prebendaries, Archdeacons, Parſons, Vicars, and Cu⯑rates.
Shall I trouble you to deſcribe them?
England is divided into two provinces, over each of which preſides an Archbiſhop. Three of the Biſhopricks, Durham, Cheſter and Carliſle, are ſubject to the Biſhop of York, and the other twenty-one to the Archbiſhop of Canterbury. An Archbiſhop is the head of the Clergy in his whole province, and governs the Biſhops as well as the inferior Clergy. At the com⯑mand of the King, he calls the Biſhops and Clergy of his province to meet in convocation. All the Biſhops have ſome livings more or leſs to give away among the Clergy, and when a Clergyman of any pariſh dies, of which the Church is in the gi [...]t of the Biſhop, if the Biſhop does not diſpoſe of it in ſix months, the Archbiſhop has the giving of it away; he can grant a licence to a Clergyman, that is a maſter of Arts, in one of our Uni⯑verſities, to hold two livings, and he can grant ſpecial li⯑cences to marry at any place or at any time; he has alſo the privilege of conferring a Doctor's or other degree in the ſame manner as do the Univerſities.
What, cannot people be married when and where they pleaſe?
Not without the Biſhop's licence, which coſts ten pounds. The laws obliges people to be married at their own Pariſh Church, and between eight and twelve in the morning.
You mentioned his calling the Clergy to convocation. What is that?
The Convocation is a Parliament in minia⯑ture; the upper houſe, conſiſting of the Biſhops, repreſents the Houſe of Lords, in which the Archbiſhop of Can⯑terbury preſides as King, and with Royal State; the lower houſe is compoſed of repreſentatives choſen by the Clergy, (Rectors and Vicars, in the ſeveral Archdea⯑conries, [132]and by the Prebendaries of the ſeveral Cathe⯑drals,) reſembling the Houſe of Commons with its Knights and Burgeſſes.
What buſineſs do they do, and how often do they meet?
They meet as often as the Parliament does, but meet only to diſperſe again, for they have no ſooner choſen their Prolocutor or Chairman than the King prorogues them or prevents their continuance. They formerly ſettled the buſineſs of the church, but being found to enter into matters that did not concern them, the King has never ſuffered them to do any buſineſs ſince the year 1716. The form is ſtill preferved, as be⯑ing part of the conſtitution of this country. But to return.
A Biſhop, as well as an Archbiſhop, beſides the power of ordaining Clergymen and other holy ordinances, has authority to inſpect the manners of the Laity as well as of the Clergy, and puniſh delinquents by eccleſiaſtical cenſures; to this end, they hold courts of Civil Law.
How are Biſhops appointed, and in what manner do their revenues ariſe?
Biſhops and Archbiſhops are choſen by the Chapter of their Cathedrals, that is, by the Dean and Prebendaries belonging to the Cathedral; but they are obliged to chooſe ſuch perſons as the Kind recommends. Their revenues ariſe from the great tithes of ſeveral Vicarages in their gift, and from lands appropriated to the biſhoprick.
What are theſe tithes?
Tithes are the tenth part of the produce of the lands lying in each pariſh, which time out of mind have been the property of the Rector or Parſon of the pariſh, but for the maintenance of the Biſhops, ſeveral of theſe Rectories have been converted into Vicarages, that is, the tithes have been divided, and the great tithes, as corn, hay, and ſuch things as are moſt valuable, have been appropriated to the uſe of the Biſhops, and the ſmaller tithes, as milk, fruit, &c. have been ſettled on the Clergymen who ſerved the Church, and whom the Biſhop appoints; ſuch Clergymen are called Vicars. Whereas ſuch as have all the tithes of a pariſh, both [133]great and ſmall, are called Rectors or Parſon. Rectors alſo have generally ſome land annexed to their houſes, the Vicars little or none; of courſe rectories are of great annual value, from forty pounds a-year, to 2000 hundred pounds a-year, and often not ſo much as twenty pounds.
You tell me that the great tithes of a pariſh are the property of the Rector, how is it then that ſome have fallen into Lay hands? for I have a relation who gives away the living to a Clergyman, but who receives the great tithes himſelf.
This originated among the Friars before the Reformation, when there were ſocieties of Roman Catholic Clergymen living together in one houſe, called Convents, as many now do in France and Spain, and other countries, in the ſame manner as I have told you the Fellows live together in the ſeveral Colleges in our Univerſities. By conſent of the King they begged and bought all the Church livings within their reach, ap⯑propriating the tithes to the uſe of themſelves, and giving a Prieſt ſome ſmall ſtipend, or the ſmall tithes for ſerving the Church, who was thence called a Vicar, which means a ſubſtitute. Now at the Reformation, when the Popiſh religion was aboliſhed, the monaſ⯑ [...]eries were diſſolved or broken up, and theſe appro⯑priations or great tithes veſted in the King, who afterwards granted them to private perſons, not Clergy⯑men, who have from time to time ſold them or diſ⯑poſed of them to whom they thought proper. Theſe appropriations from being improperly in the hands of Lay-men, are called Impropriations. Crown lands and obey lands were ever exempt from paying tithes, [...]ch lands therefore to this day continue tithe-free.
What are firſt-fruits and tenths?
The firſt fruits of living were the whole [...]ofits of the firſt year, according to a rate ſettled in [...]292, and originally paid to the Pope. The tenths were a tenth part of the annual income of each living [...] the ſame valuation. At the Reformation the y were [...]nexed to the Crown, and that valuation made, by [...]hich the Clergy are now rated; but by the bounty of [134]Queen Ann, all livings under fifty pounds a-year are diſcharged of theſe payments, and what others pay is veſted in Truſtees for ever, as a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings.
I ſhould like to know how it happened that ſeveral noblemen and gentlemen have one or more liv⯑ings in their gift.
I will explain this by and by: to do it now would be breaking in upon the order in which I propoſed to deſcribe to you, the ſeveral officers of the Church.
I will interrupt you no more.
Before either Rectors or Vicars, I ſhould have mentioned a Dean and Chapter. The Dean, with the Chapter of the Cathedral Church, (that is the Canons or Prebendaries, which are Clergymen that at⯑tend the ſervice of the Cathedral) are the Biſhop's coun⯑ſel to aſſiſt him with advice in matters of religion, or the temporal concerns of his biſhoprick; moſt of the Deans are appointed by the King, and ſome few by the Biſhop of the dioceſe. It is the ſame with the Preben⯑daries; ſome of whom are nominated by the King, and others by the Biſhops.
The next perſon to be mentioned is the Archdea⯑con. This is alſo a clerical officer, is ſubordinate to the Biſhop of the dioceſe, and is appointed by the Biſhop, but has a kind of epiſcopal authority independent of him. It is the province and duty of a Biſhop to hold a viſitation in the ſeveral parts of his dioceſe, that is to go round his biſhoprick once in three years, to confirm the children, inſpect the manners of the Clergy, ſo that the churches are kept in order, and that every reli⯑gious inſtruction is properly attended. This I ſay th [...] Biſhop does once in three yars, but the Archdeaco [...] does it every year, except the year the Biſhop attend. The Archdeacon has alſo a court for trying ſpiritu [...] offences, and puniſhing them with ſpiritual cenſures there are one or more Archdeacons in every biſhop [...] according to the extent of it.
Rectors and Vicars I have mentioned. The Cu [...] is an officating Miniſter aſſiſting the Rector or Vic [...] for which be is paid a ſtipend of about fifty pounds year.
That is a ſmall ſalary conſidering the great incomes of ſome livings. What do the revenues of Biſhops and Deans generally amount to?
The Archbiſhoprick of Canterbury is 10,000 pounds a-year, that of York 8000 pounds; and the ſeveral Biſhops, including livings they ſometimes hold, have from 7000 pounds to 2000 pounds. Deaneries are from about 1500 pounds a-year to about 200 pounds, and Prebends from about 700 pounds a-year to 50 pounds. So much then for the Clergy. I have now only to ex⯑plain the inferior offices of the church, viz. Church-Wardens, Pariſh Clerks, and Sextons.
There are generally two Church-wardens choſen for every pariſh, one by the inhabitants, and one by the Rector or Vicar; theſe are the Guardians of the church, and the repreſentatives of the body of pa⯑riſhioners. Their duty is to keep the church in repair, and collect money from the pariſhioners in proper pro⯑portions for that purpoſe, and they with the Overſeers have alſo the management of the poor.
Pariſh Clerks are generally appointed by the Rector or Vicar, and are ſworn into their office by the Arch⯑deacon; their duty is to attend the Miniſter in the offices of the church.
I have been told that Pariſh Clerks are often Clergymen.
In pariſhes where the office of Clerk is worth a Clergyman's notice, it is ſometimes given to per⯑ſons in holy orders; but they never officiate as Clerk, but appoint a deputy to do the duty.
Sextons are perſons that toll the bell, dig the graves, and keep the churches clean and quite during divine ſervice.
Now, Sir, you have gone through the whole, permit me to remind you of giving me an account, how the gift of livings fell into Lay hands, when I think, they ſhould be in the diſpoſal of the Biſhop.
Though Lay-men may be the patrons of livings, that is, have the gift of the church, yet the Biſhop has the examination of the perſons appointed, whether he has ſufficient learning, and whether he be [...] man of good character or not. If he is found to be an [136]improper perſon, the Biſhop can reject him, and Pa⯑trons muſt nominate another. But now for an anſwer to your queſtion.
To make you rightly underſtand the nature of Patro⯑nage, I muſt firſt acquaint you with the origin of Manors.
I am all attention.
Manors are as ancient as the Saxon Conſti⯑tution, which was general in this country before the year 1066, when it was conquered by King William I. A Manor conſiſted of a certain diſtrict or extent of land, (the extent of one or more pariſhes, or perhaps but part of one) the uſual reſidence of the owner, and ſome part of which he kept n [...]ihis hands for the uſe of his family, the reſt was diſtributed to tenants, who, for the uſe of the land, conſented to do whatever the Lord of the Manor commanded him, ſo that they ſometimes went out to war with him and fought for him, ſometimes they cultivated the land he kept in his own hands, and did other ſervices which he required of him. This was the ſtate of the ſcodal ſyſtem ſo much ſpoken of in hiſtory; men were then at the will of their Lord. Since that time certain indulgencies of Lords of Manors, cer⯑tain conſtructions of law, and certain incroachments of the tenants have made ſome alteration in this, and though ſuch tenants ſtill hold their lands or eſtates at the will of the Lord, yet it is ſuch a will as is agreeable to the cuſtom of the Manor, which cuſtoms are pre⯑ſerved in the Court-roll of the Manor, and kept by the Stewards; and thoſe tenants who have nothing to ſhew for their eſtates but admiſſions in conſequence of ſuch cuſtoms, witneſſed by copies of entries in their poſſeſ⯑ſion made by the Stewards, are called Tenants by copy of Court-roll, and their eſtate is thence called a Copyhold: for ſuch eſtates they pay a ſmall annual ſum by way of acknowledgement, perhaps a few ſhillings, called qui [...] ⯑rent, and the Lord, when they die, takes generally the beſt beaſt ſuch tenant poſſeſſed, this beaſt is called a heriot: Lords of Manors have it in their power to re⯑leaſe ſuch eſtates from heriots and quit-rent; in which caſe, the eſtate is called a Freehold, and the owner Freeholder, and theſe are the people who elect the Knight [137]of the ſhire to ſerve in Parliament, provided each man's Freehold is not leſs than forty ſhillings a-year.
Now, then, this underſtood, you will comprehend the nature of patronage. Great part of theſe Manors, as now, conſiſted of waſte ground, and as Chriſtianity ſpread, the Lords of theſe Manors began to build Churches on their waſtes, for the accommodation of their tenants, and obliged thoſe tenants to appropriate their tithes to the ſupport of one officiating Miniſter, which before, were diſtributed among all the Clergy in the dioceſe; and this tract or extent of land, the tithes of which were ſo appropriated was called a pariſh: and becauſe they built the Church, they were allowed to nominate a Miniſter, ſubject to his examination by the Biſhop. This right of nomination is called an advowſon, and is ſaleable like an eſtate, provided the Rector or Vicar is firſt appointed.
You have given me ſuch a clear account of every thing you have told me, that I truſt I ſhall re⯑member it.
We will then finiſh for the preſent, leſt your memory ſhould be too much burthened. Our next ſubject ſhall be upon the Army.
DISCOURSE IX. ON THE ARMY, NAVY, AND MILITIA.
I Think, Sir, our diſcourſe this day is to be upon the Army?
It is: and you ſhall be told every thing I know upon the ſubject. The profeſſion of arms compre⯑hends all thoſe who engage to ſerve their King and [...]ountry in war with honour and ſidelity; the King has he nomination of all the officers, and gives them pay in [...]roportion to the rank each one holds in the ſervice, [...]rom the common Soldier to the General. This pay is [...]mething encreaſed in time of war, by ſome advantages [...]he officers have during their encampment.
[138]The army is divided into three branches, the caval⯑ry, infantry, and artillery, (for I ſhall ſay nothing of the Navy now) having mentioned that, when I was ſpeaking of the ſea.
Will you do me favour to deſcribe each in its turn?
By the cavalry is underſtood, the horſe; of which there are two troops of Horſe Guards of Life Guards, ſo called becauſe they attend upon the King only, and defend his life; two troops of Horſe Grena⯑dier Guards; one regiment of Horſe Guards; four re⯑giments of Horſe; three regiments of Dragoon Guards, and eighteen regiments of Dragoons, in all about twen⯑ty-ſix regiments or about 18000 men.
What officers are there belonging to a re⯑giment of Horſe?
A Colonel, a Lieutenant-Colonel, a Major, eight or ten Captains, and as many Lieutenants, and Cornets, an Adjutant, a Quarter-Maſter, a Chaplain, and a Surgeon, with Kettle Drummer, Trumpeter, Ser⯑jeant, and Corporals.
What is the pay of the Cavalry?
The Horſe Guards have better pay than the Dragoons, a Colonel of Dragoons has 1l. 15s. per day; a Lieutenant-Colonel 1l. 4s. 6d. a Major 1l.0s. 6d. each Captain of a troop 15s. 6d. a Lieutenant 9s. a Cornet 8s. The Adjutant 5s. Surgeon 6s. and the Chaplain 6s. 8d. The Drummer 2s. 3d. the Trumpe⯑ter 2s. a Serjeant 2s. 9d. a Corporal 2s. 3d. and each private man 1s. 9d. The Colonel has the cloathing of his regiment, for which he is allowed ſufficient to clean 5 or 600 pounds a year, after paying for the cloaths, and a Captain of a troop has alſo ſome perquiſites. The Colonel of the two troops of Life-Guards attend upon the King at Court, on Court days, and their regiments are not worth leſs to each, all things conſidered, than 2000l pounds a year. A regiment of Dragoons, is con⯑ſidered worth 1500 pounds a year, and a regiment [...] Foot, 1000 pounds a year in time of war, and about 700 pounds in time of peace.
And why this?
Becauſe a regiment in time of war conſiſts of 1000 men, and in time of peace of not above half the number, of courſe, if a Colonel gets 600 pounds a year by cloathing 1000 men, he can get but half the money by cloathing 500.
How many regiments of Foot are there?
Sometimes more and ſometimes leſs. In peace there is about ſeventy-two regiments. In war about 120, beſides three regiments of Foot Guards that are always a kept up, in war or peace, each regiment conſiſting of 3000 men; ſo that in war, reckoning 120 regiments of 1000 men each is 120,000 and 9000 Guards, but in time of peace the 120 regiments are reduced to about ſeventy-two of 500 each, that is about 36000 men.
How are the regiments divided?
Into ten companies each. Each company has a Captain, a Lieutenant, and an Enſign, and over the whole there is a Colonel, a Lieutenant-Colonel and a Major. A company of Artillery has four Lieutenants.
Have the Infantry no Chaplain?
Yes; each regiment has a Chaplain, an Adjutant, a Surgeon, and a Surgeon's mate, beſides Serjeants and Corporals.
What is the pay of the Foot?
The Foot Guards have better pay than [...]arching regiments; they continue in London which [...] a more expenſive place than the country where other [...]egiments are quartered, and where owing to being [...]artered or lodged at Public Houſes, the officers can [...]e cheaper; beſides the uniform or cloaths of the of⯑ [...]cers of the Foot Guards is more expenſive than thoſe [...]f marching regiments. The officers of the Foot Guards [...]ave alſo better or more rank than officers of other re⯑ [...]ments. An Enſign of the Guards ranks or is upon an [...]uality with a Lieutenant of a marching regiment, a [...]eutenant of the Guards ranks as a Captain, and a [...]aptain of the Guards as a Lieutenant-Colonel, and is [...]lled Colonel. Now, with reſpect to their pay.
The Colonel of a marching regiment has 1l. 4s. per [...]y, the Lieutenant-Colonel 17s. the Major 15s. each the Captains 10s. a Lieutenant 4s. 8d. an Enſign 3s. 8d. [140]the Adjutant 4s. the Quarter-Maſter 4s. 7d. the Sur⯑geon 4s. and 4d. a month out of each man's pay; the Surgeon's mate 3s. 6d. and the Chaplain 6s. 8d. a Ser⯑jeant 1s. 6d. a Corporal 1s. and each private man 8d.
It is very little pay, how do they contrive to live upon it?
It is with difficulty. Indeed the officers ſel⯑dom do, they have generally ſmall fortunes of their own. The army is a profeſſion of honour rather than of profit, and ſo great is the eagerneſs of young men to get into it, that commiſſions are oftener purchaſed than given away. 350 pounds is the price given for an Enſigncy, and the pay is not more than about fifty pounds a year. In time of peace when regiments are quartered or ſettled in a country place, an Enſign can make ſhift to live upon his pay, the inns upon the roads are obliged to give him a bed and three good meals a day for one ſhilling, in which caſe he has two ſhillings and ſix-pence left for cloaths and other things: and as to the common Soldiers, the public houſes are obliged by act of parliament to give them a lodging, ſmall beer, fire, and utenſils to dreſs their food, with ſalt, pepper, and vinegar for nothing, or to find them in victuals for four-pence a day.
I have heard ſay that the army is the beſt ſchool in the world for young men; why is it ſo reckoned?
Becauſe they enter very early into it, and are brought up with high notions of honour, bravery and politeneſs to each other. There is ſuch a diſcipline in the army that no officer dare contradict, diſpute, or diſobey the orders of a ſuperior officer, tho' that officer ſhall perhaps be only an older Captain, or an older En⯑ſign, on pain of being tried by his brother officers for diſobedience of orders, and of being puniſhed, broke, and diſgraced, if found guilty: a lad that is undutiful to his parents or maſters, will be there ſoon taught ſubordination and obedience; he will learn to live upon ſix-pence a day, to bear heat and cold and fatigue, and never to commit a diſhonourable action.
What are the field officers of a regiment?
The Colonel, Lieutenant-Colonel and the Major, who take a particular command when in the field of battle.
Is there no higher rank in the army than a Colonel?
Yes, Brigadier-Generals, Major-Generals, Lieutenant-Generals, Generals and Field Marſhals, and laſt of all Commanders in Chief, who command the whole army, whereas, other Generals, in proportion to their rank, command only a branch of the army in the day of battle.
What is the pay fo theſe Generals?
They have no pay but when employed. Admirals are always in pay, but Generals not. When they are paid, their pay is in proportion to their rank: from two pounds a day to ten pounds, which is the pay of the Commanders in Chief.
What is the office of the Adjutant and the Quarter-Maſter?
The Adjutant's buſineſs in to aſſiſt the Major, to deliver his orders, and to regulate the regimental accounts; that of the Quarter-Maſter to procure pro⯑per accommodations for the men in quarters and camp, and to keep every thing in order. Theſe officers in each regiment, with the Chaplain and Surgeon are ap⯑pointed by the Colonel, as are the Serjeants and Cor⯑porals by the Captains.
What are the Grenadiers?
They form one company of every regiment, [...]hat march at the head of that regiment; they are the [...]alleſt, beſt-made men picked out of the whole, and wear [...]ong caps on purpoſe to make them appear taller, in or⯑ [...]er to give the regiment a noble appearance.
Is a ſoldier when enliſted obliged to ſerve [...]or life?
He is obliged to ſerve twenty years unleſs [...]e be diſabled, or can procure his diſcharge before. It [...] in the option of his Colonel, who, if he has behaved [...]ell, will diſcharge him for eight or ten guineas in order [...] procure another in his room, or will give him his diſ⯑ [...]arge for nothing.
Is an officer ever promoted in the army by ſeniority?
Sometimes; particularly if he is abroad in ſervice, in time of war. If a Lieutenant dies, or is killed, the eldeſt Enſign of the ſame regiment will come in youngeſt Lieutenant; if a Captain dies, or is killed, the eldeſt Lieutenant will now and then ſucceed, but this ſucceſſion will not often take place in officers of higher rank than Captains; it will require intereſt and recom⯑mendation, as for great attention to duty, ſome gallant act of bravery or the like. When an officer once ge [...]s the rank of Colonel, his rank goes on, and no Colonel is put over his head. All the Colonels of the ſame ſtanding are made Majors-Generals together, and all Major-Generals of the ſame ſtanding, Lieutenant-Generals a [...] the ſame time; but it does not follow that becauſe a man is a General he is to be employed as ſuch. The King ſingles out for a command ſuch as he thinks are men of the beſt abilities and heroiſm.
I have heard of Volunteers, what are theſe?
In time of war, a young gentleman who per⯑haps cannot get a Enſig [...]cy for aſking for, and has [...] 350 pounds to purchaſe one, will requeſt the Colone [...] of a regiment in ſervice to take him as a Volunteer; [...] accepted, he acts in the ſtation of a private ſoldier at [...] own expence, without pay; but yet aſſociates with th [...] officers, and ſuch Volunteer will have the firſt Enſigncy in the regiment that drops, given to him, as a reward for his alacrity and readineſs to ſerve his country.
Have there not been inſtances of privat [...] Soldiers obtaining in courſe of time great rank in th [...] army?
There have been ſome few inſtances of th [...] kind. The late Generals, Bland and Salter, were one common ſoldiers. An induſtrious man in the Guard may by the favour of his Colonel ſoon be appointed Serjeant; it is then his d [...]ty to teach the men their [...] ⯑erene; and if they are clever and expert at this, wh [...] new regiments are raiſed, they generally give one [...] two of ſuch men commiſſions, in each of thoſe n [...] raiſed regiments, in order to exerciſe the men and [...] they are properly diſciplined. When the 79th re [...] ⯑ment [143]was raiſed in the laſt war, there were ſeven Ser⯑jeants taken from the Guards and made Lieutenants of that regiment, though they had never been Enſigns, a Serjeant of the Guards being almoſt conſidered upon an equality of rank with an Enſign of a marching regi⯑ment; but this was a ſingular circumſtance. When once they are in commiſſion, it is eaſy to ſee, that in time of action, ſomething may happen to forward their promotion.
Is there any proviſion for diſabled Soldiers, as there is for diſabled ſeamen?
When a ſoldier has ſerved twenty years, he is entitled to be an out-penſioner of Chelſea Hoſpital, for which he receives about ſeven pounds a year, and is at liberty to ſet up his trade in any town in the king⯑dom, which no man elſe can, unleſs he be a freeman of thoſe towns; and if he is unable by wounds to get his living, and is deſirous of being taken into the Hoſpital wholly, he will be received, lodged, cloathed and main⯑tained for the reſt of his life; but ſometimes in time of war, when ſoldiers are wanted to go abroad, they will ſe⯑lect the moſt able of the out-penſioners to ſerve in Forts and Garriſons within the kingdom. Indeed the Gar⯑riſons of Great Britain are chiefly manned with invalids of which there are twenty-ſix companies; and officers who have loſt a leg or an arm in the ſervice, are gene⯑rally removed to them, where they live comfortably the remainder of their days.
Is there no proviſion for their widows, if they are killed in battle?
None. The widows of officers have pen⯑ſions after their death, whether they are killed in battle or not. A Colonel's widow has 50l. a year, a Major's 40l. a Lieutenant-Colonel's 35l. a Major's 30l a Cap⯑tain's 25l. a Lieutenant's 20l. an Enſign's 15l. and a Chaplain's and Surgeon's 20l. each.
What becomes of the officers and men of the reduced regiments?
The men are diſbanded, that is diſcharged, and the officers have half pay for their lives.
Now, Sir, will you explain to me the Ar⯑ [...]ery?
The Artillery is employed in firing of can⯑non, and throwing of bombs.
I know what a cannon is, but do not rightly underſtand the nature of a bomb.
A bomb is an iron ſhell, hollow within, filled with combuſtible matter, with a fuſe or artificial fire, communicating with the contents of the ſhell, and which takes fire without, when ſhot out of a mortar, or piece, ſomething reſembling a cannon. It is deſigned to be ſhot into towns and forts, and is ſo contrived, that the fu [...]e which burns all the way it goes, ſhall ſet fire to the contents of the bomb as ſoon as it falls to the ground and burſt it into a thouſand pieces, which will deſtroy and fire every thing within its reach. The ſol⯑diers generally ſee them as they fly in the air, and avoid them when they can; they are thrown into forts like a cannon ball, by the force of gun-powder.
How many regiments of Artillery are there?
Only one, which conſiſts of four batallions, whoſe province it is to work mortars, great guns or can⯑nons, ſpring mines, throw bridges over rivers and other ſuch things.
I do not comprehend what you mean by ſpringing of mines.
A mine is a ſubterraneous paſſage dug un⯑der the wall or rampart of a fortified town, deſigned to be blown up with gun-powder, when the enemy is paſ⯑ſing over it.
Is there any difference between the Artil⯑lery and the Engineers?
The corps of Engineers is a part of the Ar⯑tillery; their buſineſs is to contrive attacks at ſieges and defend towns when beſieged. This corps has one Co⯑lonel, two Lieutenants-Colonels, four Majors, twenty-four Captains, and thirty-eight Lieutenants.
How many men does a batallion conſiſt of?
From five hundred to eight hundred.
How many forts are there in Great Britain?
Thirty-four or thirty-five, each of which has a Governor, and Lieutenant-Governor, beſides other officers, and ſome Artillery. The pay of the Gover⯑nors is from 1200 pounds a year to 100 pounds, and [...] [145]the Lieutenant Governor from 300 pounds to 100l. All theſe offices are in the gift of the King.
Does the King diſpoſe of them himſelf?
Very ſeldom; they are given away, as are the biſhopricks, generally by the King's miniſters to their families, or to thoſe whom they wiſh to oblige.
How many Miniſters has the King?
About eight or nine, and theſe generally conſiſt of ſuch of the Privy Council as bear the great offices of State. The Firſt Lord of the Treaſury. The Lord Chancellor. The Lord Preſident of the Council. The Firſt Lord of the Admiralty. The Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Secretary of War. The Commander in Chief of the Army, (when there is one) and the two Secretaries of State; but the Firſt Lord of the Treaſury is the oſtenſible Miniſter; and if theſe gentlemen ſhould adviſe the King to any wrong meaſure, they are liable to be called to an account for it by the Parliament, (which is called impeaching them) and to be puniſhed, even to the loſs of life. Have you any more queſtions to aſk?
Oh, yes, a great many, I want, among other things, to know what a ſiege is, and the nature of it.
It is in ſieges that the artillery are chiefly [...]mployed. When a fort of fortified town, that is, a [...]own round which thick walls are built, and great ditches [...]ug, to defend it againſt the approach of an enemy; then ſuch a ſtrong place is attacked, it is ſaid to be [...]eſieged, and the buſineſs of the beſiegers is to get into, [...]nd take poſſeſſion of ſuch fort or town.
Is a fort and a fortified town the ſame thing?
No. A fort is merely a place walled and ditched [...]und like a fortified town, for the ſhelter and ſecurity of a [...]mber of ſoldiers, and, like that, is called a garriſon. A [...]all number of ſoldiers from ſuch a place, can occaſionally [...]ly or go out and annoy the enemy and retire within the [...] again, and be ſafe; it is therefore I ſay, the buſineſs of [...]e beſiegers to drive this garriſon out and take poſſeſſion [...] the place. For this purpoſe, artillery are employed [...] both ſides, that is, bombs are thrown, and cannon [...]d, thoſe from the beſiegers to knock down the walls, [...] deſtroy the fort; thoſe from the beſieged to drive [146]away the enemy, by firing on them from the walls. If the beſiegers can make a breach in any part of the walls, they will ruſh in and take the fort by force. This is called ſtorming it. If they cannot do this, they will cut off all communication with the fort, either by ſea or land, by carefully watching that no perſons ſhall go out of it, nor any proviſions, ammunition, or other aſſiſtance be taken in, and by this means, in a length of time, they will ſtarve them out, and oblige them to ſurrender; for when their proviſions or ammunition is gone, they can hold out no longer.
And are things always carried to ſuch extre⯑mities?
No. The beſieged generally ſurrender, if overpowered, before things are brought to the utmoſt extremity; for the General of the beſiegers always ſends to the Commanding Officer of the Fort, and tells him that if he does not ſurrender, he will ſhew to Garriſon no quarter, that is, if he is obliged to get poſſeſſion by force, he will put every man to death; ſhould they hold out to the laſt, they lie wholly at the mercy of their enemy. If the beſieged are driven off or think proper to deſiſt from their enterprize, they are ſaid to raiſe the ſiege.
How do they ſend to each other, when all communication is cut off.
They will ſometimes, as the Romans did, ſhoot a letter upon the point of an arrow from one to the other, or a party will advance from the chief body of the enemy, with a flag, which is called a flag of truce; this is generally ſeen by the other party, and is known to be the ſignal for a parley or conference.
Who, Sir, were the Romans?
They were a warlike people, that inhabited Italy from about 400 years before Chriſt to about 222 after Chriſt, that is, for about the ſpace of 600 years who carried their conqueſts into moſt parts of Europe, Aſia, and Africa, and became maſters of all the know [...] parts of the world; but owing to too great an extent o [...] empire, they were not able to keep their ſubjects i [...] ſubjection; who, as they grew more powerful, ſe [...] up kings of their own in the different parts of Europe [147]This gave riſe to the preſent kingdoms, and the Roman empire ſunk away and was loſt in the eſtabliſhment of other States.
In mentioning the ſoldiery, you have not once named the Militia.
The Militia are a diſtinct body of men, though they are diſciplined like the army, and co-operate with them in time of war.
How are they raiſed?
Every county is obliged to raiſe a certain number out of the inhabitants of that county, and the men ſo raiſed are trained to arms, and ſerve three years, when others are drawn by lot in their room.
Are they under arms all theſe three years?
No. Only in time of war, at which time they are cloathed and paid like other ſoldiers and are under the ſame diſcipline; but in time of peace they [...]re called out for one month, at Whitſuntide, and are taught their exerciſe, or the uſe of arms, and during the month only that they are ſo out, they are paid.
How are they choſen?
Each pariſh chuſes yearly by lot, a propor⯑ [...]ionable number of their inhabitants, perhaps three or [...]our or more, ſufficient to make up the number their [...]ounty is to furniſh. If any of theſe inhabitants object [...]o ſerve, by paying five or ſix pounds, a ſubſtitute may [...]e found to ſerve the three years for them.
How are the officers choſen?
They are appointed by the Lord Lieutenant [...] the county, out of the gentlemen of the county, the [...]ord Lieutenant being always the Colonel of the [...]ounty Militia.
And are they obliged to ſerve?
As the Militia are never ſent out of the [...]ngdom, gentlemen are very-eager for theſe appoint⯑ments; ſo that none are choſen, but ſuch as have a [...]tain independant property, which is called a Quali⯑ [...]tion.
What are the neceſſary qualifications?
Lieutenant Colonels muſt have an eſtate of 600 [...]unds a year, the Majors and Captains 200 pounds, Lieu⯑tenant 50 pounds, and Enſigns 20 pounds. One half of [148]which property muſt be in the county they are choſen for.
Is there any proviſion for a wounded Mili⯑tia man?
They are, like other ſoldiers, entitled to the benefit of Chelſea Hoſpital, and have other privileges like them.
How many men do the ſeveral counties raiſe?
England and Wales together, furniſh 30,740 private men.
When all the army are together they muſt make a vaſt body.
Certainly; not leſs in time of war, reckoning the Cavalry, Infantry, Militia, Marines, and Artillery, than about 184,000, beſides 120,000 ſeamen: ſo that, with⯑out officers, the army and navy may be reckoned, in war, to amount to above 300,000 men. A vaſt number for ſo ſmall a territory as Great Britain to find and ſupport.
Does not Ireland aſſiſt upon this occaſion?
Yes, But in the laſt war, they raiſed among themſelves for the defence of their own country, 70,000 Volunteers, and every man was well diſciplined and bore his own expences, without calling upon the State for any aſſistance, which, added to the number of the army, reckoned before, makes 370,000 men.
A vaſt number indeed!
Such a number as diſpelled all fear of being attacked in any quarter: for the ſucceſs of a battle generally depends upon numbers, few Generals caring to riſk an engagement, if their army is not pretty near upon an equality with the enemy in point of number.
How many ſhips for war have we?
We had laſt war, in commiſſion, ſmall and great, about 480, on which there are on board nea [...] 16,000 guns or cannon.
Are theſe all fighting ſhips?
When I ſay 480, I include 102 ſhips of it line, (which are ſhips, carrying more guns than 50 [...] frigates, brigs, galleys, ſchooners, cutters, fire-ſhip and yatchs. Cutters are chiefly employed to gua [...] the coaſt from ſmugglers?
What are ſmugglers?
Such as bring by ſea, tea, brandy, rum, and other articles into the country, without paying duty, by which means the rob the ſtate of part of its revenue.
They are liable to be puniſhed for this?
Their goods and veſſels are liable to be ſeized, and if they make and reſiſtance, the offence is death.
By what means does the Admiral, in an engagement, give his direction to other ſhips?
By ſignals; that is, by flags hoiſted on certain parts of the ſhips, and by firing of guns.
Theſe ſignals muſt be then very numerous; how do they contrive not to miſtake one for another?
They are all ſettled before hand, and wrote down; and an officer on board each ſhip is appointed to explain them. In ſhort, a mariner is ſo well acquainted with all the buſineſs of navigation, that there are few miſtakes, but what are wilful.
DISCOURSE IX. OF THE COURTS OF LAW AND THEIR OFFICERS.
HAVE you, my dear Eugenius, a right com⯑prehenſion of the Courts of Law?
Very far from it; it would give me pleaſure to have them properly explained.
I ſhall not enter into a minute detail of them; but content myſelf with ſaying only ſo much as will give you a general idea of the principal of them, which are four; (for there are ſeveral that will be unneceſſary to burthen your memory with) we will begin with the loweſt.
The firſt then is the court of Common Pleas, calcu⯑lated to redreſs injuries, committed by one man upon the property of another, in any part of the: kingdom. [150]It was eſtabliſhed in Weſtminſter Hall by King John, in 1216, where it has continued ever ſince. The Judges of this Court are four in number; the Chief Juſtice of the Common Pleas, and three puiſne, or Under Judges, who ſit every day in Term time, to hear and determine all matters of law, ariſing in civil cauſes, real or perſonal.
What is meant by civil cauſes?
By civil cauſes are meant all infringements upon property, carried on or proſecuted by the perſon injured, in contradiſtinction to criminal cauſes, which are conſidered as breaches of the peace, and though commenced by the party aggrieved, are carried on in the King's name, as the chief magiſtrate and enforcer of the Laws.
The Court of King's Bench is the next (ſo called, becauſe the King uſed to ſit there in perſon) and is the Supreme Court of Common Law, in the kingdom. It has alſo four Judges, a Chief Juſtice, and three puiſne ones.
Did the King ſit in that Court as a Judge?
He ſat there, as he is ſuppoſed to do now, but was not empowered to determine any cauſe, but by the mouth of his Judges.
What is the authority of that Court?
This has the ſuperintendance of all Civil Corporations, commands Magiſtrates and others to do what their duty requires, protects the liberty of the people; hears and determines both in criminal and civil cauſes, and is a Court to which we may appeal againſt all determinations of the Court of Common Pleas, and other inferior Courts.
You mentioned Common Law, what it underſtood by this?
Common Law implies whatever has been cuſtomary throughout the kingdom; is perhaps as old as the kingdom itſelf, and the term is uſed to diſtinguiſh it from thoſe Laws eſtabliſhed by Act of Parliament, and which are therefore called Statute Law.
There is another principal Court of Law, called the Court of Exchequer, which is a Court of Equity too and was eſtabliſhed originally to recover debts due to the King: people may, however, apply to this Cou [...] [151]for redreſs ſuch grievances, as they generally apply to the Court of Chancery for. There are four Judges alſo of this Court, called Barons of the Exchequer; a Lord Chief Baron, and three others.
But the fourth and laſt, is the High Court of Chancery, the moſt important of all in matters of civil property. Here the Lord Chancellor ſits as Judge, and determines the matter by his own decree; whereas, in the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas, the matter is heard and determined by a Jury of twelve men. But if a man thinks himſelf aggrieved, even by a decree of the Chan⯑cellor, in the Court of Chancery, he may refer his cauſe to the deciſion of the Houſe of Lords, where it may be re-heard.
What is it you mean by a Jury of twelve men?
This is eſteemed one of the greateſt privi⯑leges of a Britiſh ſubject, that of being tried, or having his cauſe determined by twelve indifferent perſons, choſen by him out of forty-eight reſpectable men, of his own country, who are ſummoned for that purpoſe; by which means the deciſion is not left to the determination of the Judge alone, who might poſſibly be thought partial.
I think you ſaid the Court of King's Bench had the ſuperintendance of all Civil Corporations; I wiſh to know the nature of a Corporation.
Corporations are bodies of man united, by a Charter or Privilege from the Crown, for the purpoſe of protecting their own rights, or the rights of the Com⯑munity to which they belong. They are empowered to make certain laws of regulation among themſelves, and to enforce the execution of them, if they be not contrary to the laws of the land. Cities and all Borough towns that ſend members to Parliament, are towns corporate or little republicks, and the Mayor and Aldermen of ſuch corporate bodies are generally Magiſtrates, within the limits of the Corporation.
The Corporation of the City of London, like that of other towns, conſiſts of three branches. The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Common Council; in imitation of King, Lords, and Commons. The City is divided into twelve wards, and each ward elects an Alderm [...]. [152]and a certain number of Common Council. The Alder⯑men meet by themſelves, and ſo do the Common Council, and thus between them, the buſineſs of the Corporation is adjuſted.
Why is the Mayor of London called Lord Mayor?
By a particular privilege, the Mayors of London, York, and Dublin, have the title of Lord for the year they ſerve; which the Mayors of other towns have not.
What are thoſe Courts that are held in the Country, I mean the Aſſizes?
They are a kind of Aſſiſtant Courts, ſent by the King's Special Commiſſion twice a year all round the King's dominions. Their buſineſs is to try by a Jury of the reſpective counties ſuch cauſes as muſt otherwiſe be brought up to Weſtminſter. Thus for the caſe of the ſubject, juſtice is brought home to every man's door; diſputed facts are tried, if required, in the country, by neighbours; and criminals are proſecuted, where the witneſſes are near at hand to attend.
Are there no other Courts of conſequence?
Yes. The Court of Admiralty is one, at which the Lord High Admiral or his Deputy preſides. This Court is held three or four times a year at the Old Bailey, in London, and one of the Judges generally acts as the Lord Admiral's deputy. It tries all offences committed on the ſeas, or in parts out of the reach of the Common Law Courts.
There are Courts alſo for trying Eccleſiaſtical cauſes, and there is the Prerogative Court for the trial of wills the Judge of which is appointed by the Archbiſhop of Canterbury.
Now you mention wills; ſhall I trouble you to tell me the office of an Executor.
The Executor is generally ſome friend o [...] the deceaſed, appointed by him, in his will, to execut [...] what is there directed; to diſpoſe of the effects, and diſ⯑tribute the property, according to the will of th [...] teſtator.
Suppoſe he does not chuſe to undertake it what is then done?
The next of kin, in ſuch caſe, will admi⯑niſter, that is, apply to the Biſhop's Court, and take out what is called Letters of Adminiſtrations, which are granted by the Biſhop for that purpoſe, and who will then take care that the tenor of the Will is properly complied with. But to go on, Beſides the Courts I have mentioned, there are little Courts in almoſt every county town throughout England, called Courts of Conſcience, for the recovery of debts under forty ſhillings.
Who are the principal people employed in theſe Courts?
The three chief parties on a trial are the Plaintiff, that is, the complainant; the Defendant, or the party complained againſt, and the Judge; but in the principal Courts, there are Attornies and Counſel, as Aſſiſtants.
What is the office of an Attorney?
An Attorney at Law, in civil Courts, is as the Proctor in the Eccleſiaſtical Courts, a perſon whom the Plaintiff or Defendant appoints to appear for him, and manage and conduct his cauſe. Theſe Attorney [...] are now formed into a regular body, and when admitted to the execution of their office by the Courts of Weſt⯑minſter Hall, are officers of thoſe Courts who admit them, and can practiſe in no other.
Of Counſel there are two degrees, Barriſters and Serjeants. Barriſters, after they have been admitted five years, in any of the Inns of Court, ſuch as the Temple, Lincoln's Inn, &c. that is, after five year ſtanding, are called to the bar: and after ſixteen years ſtanding, they may be called to the degree of Serjeants. The Judges are always admitted Serjeants, before they are made Judges. Out of theſe Barriſters of Serjeants, the King's Counſel are uſually ſelected, the two principal of whom are called his Attorney and Sollicitor-General, who are always Members of Parliament.
Have the King's Counſel any particular privilege?
They are employed always in Crown cauſes, but can be employed in no cauſe againſt the Crown, without ſpecial Licence. They are heard always before other Counſel, and even before Serjeants.
Is merit in this profeſſion ever the means of promotion?
It ſeldom is in the church, and ſeldom in the army, but almoſt always here; they muſt have able men and good ſpeakers for Judges, and for the Attorney and Solicitor-General; but of two able men, he who has moſt intereſt, is commonly preferred. From common Barriſters, they are promoted to be King's Counſel, and from King's Counſel, generally to be Maſters in Chan⯑cery and Judges. Such of the Counſel, as are appointed to be Solicitor and Attorney-General to the King, generally come to be Chief Juſtices or Lord Chancellor. The Solicitor-General is commonly promoted to the office of Attorney General, and thence to be either Chief Juſtice or Lord Chancellor, which ſeldom fails to procure him a peerage. For the Lord Chancellor does not uſually continue long in office.
Was I to chuſe my profeſſion then, it ſhould be that of a Barriſter.
You muſt be firſt a man of abilities, and a good Orator: for without theſe a Counſel makes but a poor figure and he may be never heard of as long as he lives; but if he is a ſenſible man, a good Lawyer, and a good Orator, from being at the Bar, he may get into Parlia⯑ment; and there, by his eloquence, may carry every thing before him, and arrive at the higheſt honours.
DISCOURSE X. ON SUNDRY USEFUL SUBJECTS.
BY the benefit, Sir, of your inſtruction, I think, I am pretty well maſter of almoſt every thing neceſſary to be learded by a young man coming into the world: but there are two or three ſubjects which I am ſtill ignorant of, and of which I am very deſirous of ſome little account; and that I may not forget them, I have minuted them down on a ſli [...] of paper. Will you give me leave to mention them?
There is one principal part of inſtruction, as neceſſary to youth, as any I have mentioned; which, in our late Diſcourſes I have not yet touched upon. That is the art of politeneſs, and of rendering ourſelves agreeable to the world, and the art of knowing and living in that world: but as I have put together every requiſite inſtruction upon that head, and publiſhed them under the title of PRINCIPLES OF POLITENESS AND THE ART OF KNOWING THE WORLD; I will refer you to that book. At preſent let me hear the ſubjects you wiſh to have explained.
They are as follow. The Trojan war. The nature of Magna Charta, the Habeas Corpus Bill, the Navigation Act, Naturalization, Morgages, Patents, and Paſſports.
It is very proper you ſhould underſtand them all, and I will explain them to you one after the other. The firſt, I think, is the Trojan war?
If you pleaſe?
The ſiege of Troy, though founded on fact, is ſo enveloped in fable, that the whole has, by ſome, been conſidered as fabulous. It is made the ſubject of an Heroic Poem, written in Greek, by Homer, the firſt of Poets, who lived nine hundred years before the birth of Chriſt. To give you a complete account of it, you ſhould firſt be acquainted with the Heathen Mytho⯑logy, or the fabulous Deities of Antiquity. However, I will give you the beſt notion of it I can.
The City of Troy was ſituated in that part of Phrygia, adjoining the Boſphorus of Thrace, which is now called the Straits of Conſtantinople, and flouriſhed about one thouſand two hundred years before Chriſt. We are told that Hecuba, the wife of Priam, King of Troy, when with child of Paris, dreamed that ſhe was brought to bed of a flaming torch, which, being conſtrued by an Oracle, who was ſuppoſed to have the gift of prophecy, to imply that the child of which ſhe was big, would, one day, be the ruin of his country and his family; her huſband Priam, ordered him, when born, to be put to death; but Hecuba ſecreted him, and had him brought up by a ſhepherd. Many years afterwards, Paris who [156]was unacquainted with his birth, came to Troy, to con⯑tend for a prize, which the king propoſed to give among his young nobility, and won it. Hector, the eldeſt ſon of Priam, enquiring about this young man, ſoon found him to be his brother. King Priam received him, ac⯑knowledged him, and gave him that rank that was his due. Some time after, Paris having been at Sparta to recover his aunt Heſione whom Hercules had run away with, took away be force Helena the wife of Menelaus, king of that city, and ſwore he would never return her till his aunt Heſione was returned. The Grecian princes round about, took part with Menelaus, and engaged themſelves by oath never to lay down their arms, till they had overthrown the city of Troy.
The Grecian army was conducted by 95 leaders, kings, princes, or heroes much celebrated at that time for ſingular atchievements. And Agamemnon, king of Argos and Mycene, was declared commander in chief. Among the Grecian leaders were Neſtor, Achilles, and Patroclus his friend, Ajax, ſon of Telamon, the other Ajax, Idomeneus, Diomedes, Ulyſſes and Palimedos. Their fleet was compoſed of 2190 veſſels.
The ſuperb city of Troy was defended by the all the princes of Aſia, and who to equal the forces of Greece, aſſembled a very powerful army. They were commanded alſo by very valiant princes, and by all the ſons of Priam (which were 50 in number) the eldeſt of which was Hector, who alone could have ſuſtained and re⯑pulſed all the efforts of the enemy, had fate not de⯑ſtined it to the contrary. The Trojans were every where conquerors under this hero; they drove the Greeks from every part, and burnt their fleet, ſo that they repented of their expedition; for Achilles was offended with Agamemnon, and had with-drawn him⯑ſelf, which changed the face of things. In this gene⯑ral diſcomfiture, Patroclus the friend of Achilles, anxious to recal their good fortune, took the arms of Achilles, and put himſelf at the head of the Grecian army, repulſed the Trojans and challenged Hector to ſingle combat. Hector advanced, and Pa⯑troclus fell a ſacrifice to his ſword. Achilles then, ex⯑aſperated [157]at the death of his friend, forgot the offence of Agamemnon, attacked the Trojan hero, killed him, tied him to his chariot wheels, and dragged him round the walls of Troy and the grave of his friend Patro⯑clus.
The death of Hector was as great a loſs to the Tro⯑jans, as the retreat of Achilles had been to the Greeks. Priam demanded a truce or ceſſation of arms for ſome days, during which time he went with part of his family and ſome rich preſents, to requeſt of Achilles the dead body of his ſon, that he might beſtow upon him the laſt honours. Achilles, moved with the tears of Po⯑lixena, Hector's ſiſter, whoſe beauty had ſmitten him, yielded to Priam's requeſt. Paris, profited by this cir⯑cumſtance, and revenged his brothers death; he promiſed Achilles to give him his ſiſter in marriage, and kept his word, and they were ſcarce aſſembled in the temple to ſolemnize the marriage, than Paris took an opportunity to murder Achilles.
Enraged at this, Pyrrhus, the ſon of Achilles, came with a conſiderable re-enforcement, and joined the Greeks to revenge the death of his father. But the oracle having declared, that Troy never would be taken whilſt it poſſeſſed the Palladium, (which was a ſtatue of Pallas the goddeſs of war, ſuperſtitiouſly ſuppoſed to have deſcended from heaven and to have placed her⯑ſelf upon the altar) Diomedes and Ulyſſes took upon them to take it away, which they did with great clever⯑neſs.
The Greeks however not being able to make them⯑ſelves maſters of the city by force, undertook to ſurpriſe it. They pretended that Minerva had puniſhed them for taking her from the Palladium, and after ten years ſiege, in which it had coſt them the lives of ſo many great and illuſtrious men, they had recourſe to this ſtrata⯑gem. They conſtructed a wooden horſe, in the belly of which they ſhut up a great number of armed ſoldiers, and concealed it in the iſland of Tenedos: they gave but that they built this horſe as an atonement for the injury they had done Minerva. The Trojans, on the Greeks leaving it, crowded round the figure, and ſe⯑duced [158]by a vain hope, which was heightened by one Sinon, whom the Greeks inſtructed to ſay, that if that horſe was conveyed within the walls of Troy, it would thence forth be impregnable; ſeduced, I ſay, by this ſtory, they inſtantly proceeded to make a breach in the walls, and introduced this fatal machine. This day, which was the laſt of Troy, became a day of merriment, in which each man gave way to the blind tranſports of folly. Night came on, and when the whole city was at reſt, wrapt up in fatal ſecurity, the Grecian ſoldiers opened the ſides of the horſe, and under cover of the night, ſpread themſelves in all quarters of the city, to which they ſet fire, and the flames was a ſignal to the enemy, who entered by the breach, and put all to the ſword. The Trojans made a deſperate defence, and did not yield till they were overpowered by num⯑bers. Pyrrhus in particular committed unheard-of cruelties. He broke into Priam's palace and ſlew the prince and all his family at the foot of the altar where they had fled for refuge. Polixenes was conſidered as the cauſe of Achilles's death: her, Pyrrhus ſacrificed upon the tumulus or tomb which the Greeks had raiſed to his memory; Andromache, Hector's wife, had con⯑cealed her ſon Aſlyanax in the tomb of that hero; Ulyſſes found him out, and threw him down from the top of a high tower; Pyrrhus took Andromache to Epirus afterwards and married her.
Such was the ſad fate of the proud city of Troy, which took place in the year 1180 before, Chriſt. She ſaw periſh before he walls 886,000 Greeks, and within her boſom 670,000 of her own citizens.
Was there not a Trojan prince that eſcaped from Troy, and carried his father upon his ſhoulders?
It was Eneas; he was of the blood royal, and fled from the ruins of his country with his father Anchiſes on his back, and his ſon Iulus in his hand. Hiſtory tells us that he afterwards ſettled in Italy, and that one of his deſcendants founded the empire of Rome, of which I have given you ſome little account.—What was the next thing you wiſhed to know?
The nature of Magna Charta.
Magna Charta is the great charter of liberty which the barons, that is, the nobility of this country, being at war with King John, compelled him to ſign, in the year 1215. Under all deſpotic governments, the king not only makes free with the purſes of his ſubjects, but alſo with their perſons; that is, will not only take away their property when he has occaſion for it, but will impriſon them at his pleaſure. By ſigning this charter, king John renounced for ever, in the name of the kings of this country, all ſuch arbitrary meaſures, and acquieſced to ſuch terms as to this day have ſe⯑cured the liberties of the ſubject. The Habeas Corpus bill, and act paſſed in the reign of king Charles II. is one of the glorious conſequences of this great charter.
I wiſh your would explain it.
By virtue of this act of parliament, no man can be impriſoned without knowing the cauſe of ſuch impriſonment, and having his caſe fairly argued in a court of juſtice. In all illegal confinements the pri⯑ſoner may have a writ of Habeas Corpus, directed to the perſon detaining him, and requiring him to take him before a court or before a judge, within 20 days of the writ being delivered: if a judge refuſes to grant ſuch a writ, he forfeits 500l. to the priſoner: if the keeper of a priſon refuſes to obey, the forfeits 100l. for the firſt offence, and 200l. for the ſecond. If when his caſe is argued, he be acquitted, he cannot be impriſoned again for the ſame offence.
This certainly is but juſt.
It is however what no country but this can boaſt of. What is your next queſtion?
The Navigation Act.
Great Britain being an iſland, its whole war⯑like ſtrength depends upon its marine, or its power by ſea. As a nurſery for ſeamen, therefore, the fiſheries were eſtabliſhed, and every encouragement is given to foreign commerce, and with the ſame view the naviga⯑tion act was paſſed, during the republican government of this kingdom, when the parliament had put king Charles to death. By this act, not merchandize can be imported into England, but in Engliſh ſhips of which [160]the maſter and three-fourths of the crew muſt be Eng⯑liſh ſubjects; except it be in the ſhips of that Euro⯑pean country, of which the merchandize is the growth or manufacture.
Why was this exception made?
To encourage foreigners to trade with us, for it would have been hard to have obliged them to hire Engliſh veſſels to bring here the goods of their own country. All we wiſhed to prevent was, that no other nation ſhould be the carriers of our merchan⯑dize: it was America chiefly we had an eye to, and the people there, before their independence, could ſend nothing here but in Engliſh veſſels.—What is your next queſtion?
The nature of Naturalization.
To naturalize a man is to give him the pri⯑vilege of a ſubject born in this kingdom. Neither a Jew nor a foreigner can purchaſe an eſtate in this country, nor inherit one from his anceſtors; but when he is naturalized he can, and foreigners pay more du⯑ties on imports and exports than natural born ſubjects.
Can all be naturalized that pleaſe?
Yes. If they chuſe to be at the expence of an act of parliament, which they cannot be with⯑out receiving the ſacrament according to the Church of England, and taking the oaths of ſupremacy and al⯑legiance.
What are theſe oaths?
By the oath of allegiance, the man ſwears loy⯑alty and fidelity to his King; and by the oath of ſupre⯑macy, he abjures the Pope, and acknowledges the King to be the head of the Church.
What in the expence of an act of parlia⯑ment?
About 300l. To encourage the Jews, who are a very trading people, to ſettle with us in prefer⯑ence to other countries, ſome years ago a general na⯑turalization bill was paſſed to reach to all under certain reſtrictions; but the people of England were ſo aver [...] to it, that had not the parliament immediately re⯑ [...]ealed it, they would have knocked the Jews on th [...] [161]head. They went ſo far as to kill one or two at North⯑ampton.
The other things I wiſh to know are Mort⯑gages, Patents, and Paſſports.
Paſſports are letters of ſafe conduct, granted under the King's ſeal to ſubjects of a foreign power, with whom we are at war; for without ſuch a paſſport, they cannot paſs ſafely in this country from place to place, nor can they convey their merchandize at ſea, from port to port, without its being liable to be ſeized.
Patents are excluſive privileges granted by the King to the author of any new invention, to have to fole manufacturing and vending of the ſaid invention for fourteen years.
Can any one obtain a Patents?
Any one the applies for it, on his ſwearing that he is the original inventor. But it is in the breaſt of the King to refuſe it, if he thinks proper.
What is the expence of obtaining one?
About fourſcore pounds.
Now, Sir, for Mortgages, and I will make my bow.
A Mortgage is, when a man borrows of another a certain ſum of money, and grants him an eſtate, on condition that if he repays the money on a certain fixed day, the perſon holding the eſtate ſhall return it to its former owner. The perſon borrowing the money is called the Mortgagor, and the perſon lend⯑ing it the Mortgagee. There is another article which you have not enquired about, but which is equally neceſſary for you to know.
What is that, Sir?
The nature of the Mortmain Act. When Popery was the eſtabliſhed religion of this country, it was cuſtomary for the Monks to perſuade perſons on their death beds, by alarming arguments, to leave part, if not the whole, of their property, to the convent to which they belonged; and they ſo often ſucceeded, as to become proprietors of very conſiderable eſtates, which were thus perpetually inherent in one dead hand. To prevent this, many laws from time to time have been [...]ade; and no perſon now can leave, by will any ſur [...] [162]of money to a charitable uſe, unleſs it be bequeathed and enrolled in Chancery twelve months before the death of the teſtator.
Accept my beſt thanks for the information you have given, me, and you ſhall ſee that I will profit by it.
Do this, my dear Eugenius, and I am amply gratified.