[]

A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE MOST EFFECTUAL MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH OF SEAMEN.

[][]

To THE FLAG-OFFICERS AND CAPTAINS OF HIS MAJESTY's SHIPS OF WAR ON THE WEST-INDIA STATION, THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR MOST FAITHFUL AND MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, GILBERT BLANE.

SANDWICH, Off ANTIGUA, 21ſt Auguſt, 1780.

[]

☞ As this work was written and printed during the hurry of ſervice, the Reader is deſired to excuſe any errors in point of elegance and correctneſs, as well as general perfection.

CONTENTS.

[]
  • Advertiſement Page I.
  • I. OF FEVERS Page 1.
  • 1. Means of preventing the Introdu [...]tion of Infection Page 1.
  • 2. Means of preventing the Production of Infection Page 2.
  • 3. Means of eradicating Infection Page 5.
  • 4. Means of guarding againſt Infection Page 8.
  • II. OF FLUXES Page 9.
  • Remarks on the Weſt-India Station Page 11.
  • Of Water Page 12.
  • III. OF SCURVY Page 15.
  • Further Remarks on the Weſt-India Station Page 16.

Advertiſement.

[]

MY deſign is to exhibit, in as conciſe a form as poſſible, a view of all that has been diſcovered, ſo far as I know, concerning the means of preſerving the health of Seamen. Beſides what I have learned from my own obſervation, and from the converſation of naval Officers and men of the medical profeſſion, a great part of what is here advanced has been extracted from Authors, and particularly from the works of Dr. Lind, and Capt. Cooke. As the obſervations on this important ſubject lie diſperſed in voluminous writings, to which officers have ſeldom time or opportunity to reſort, I thought it would be a uſeful and acceptable undertaking to collect them into a ſmall compaſs, together with ſuch new remarks as have occurred to others as well as myſelf, particularly reſpecting this ſtation.

More may be done towards the preſervation of the health and lives of ſeamen than is commonly imagined, and it is plainly a matter not only of humanity and duty, but of intereſt and policy. The forming of a ſeaman depends upon a long habit of life, and a practical education, as it were, from an early period of life; ſo that if our ſtock of mariners were exhauſted, or diminiſhed, neither treaſure nor any other means could repair the leſs. In this view, as well as from the peculiar dependence of Britain upon her navy, this order of men is truly ineſtimable. Moreover, conſidering man merely as a commodity in an oeconomical and political view, independently of moral conſiderations, it could be made clear that their health and lives might be preſerved at infinitely leſs expence and trouble than what are neceſſary to repair the ravage of diſeaſe.

That the health of ſhips companies depends upon means within our power, is ſtrongly evinced by this; that ſhips in the ſame ſituation of ſervice enjoy very different degrees of health. It cannot eſcape obſervation, that in this, and every other fleet, there are ſhips with the ſame complement of men, which have been the ſame length of time at ſea, and have been victualled and watered in the ſame manner, ſome of which are extremely ſickly while others are free from diſeaſe. It is to be inferred from this, that the health of ſhips companies depends in a great meaſure upon circumſtances within the power of officers, and upon them [II]much more than the medical branch, the health of the men depends, in as much as prevention is better than cure, and the art of phyſic is at best but fallible.It is prevention only that is the ſubject of this little treatiſe, which is therefore addreſſed to commanders, in whoſe hands alone the means of it are, ſince it depends on matters of police which they only can enforce, and I am well perſuaded that a certain degree of attention on their part would almoſt entirely extirpate diſeaſe from the navy.

Several obvious and well-known particulars will be found on the peruſal of the following pages, which it may be thought ſuperfluous to mention. But it was my intention to omit nothing of conſequence which I have heard of, or obſerved as a matter of aſcertained utility, and I believe the moſt experienced will find either ſomething new, or what they had not before ſufficiently attended to. Although the deſign of this work is to be extenſively uſeful, yet my trouble would be compenſated, ſhould it prove the means of health and comfort even to a ſingle ſhip's company Nay, I ſhould not repent my labour, could I enjoy the conſcious certainty of its having ſaved the life of one brave and good man.

MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH OF SEAMEN.

[1]

THOSE who live at ſea are in a certain degree exempt from ſome of the diſeaſes to which a life on land is ſubject, but there are more fatal diſeaſes incident to the former than the latter. The ſuperior purity of the air at ſea is more than counter balanced by the artificial means of propagating diſeaſe on board of a ſhip. But as the air is ſo pure at ſea, and as the cauſes of diſeaſe peculiar to a ſea-faring life are chargeable rather to the miſmanagement of men, than to the unavoidable courſe of nature, we are encouraged to exert our attention in endeavouring to eradicate them.

The only very fatal diſeaſes incident to ſeamen are fevers, fluxes, and the ſcurvy.

I. OF FEVERS.

WHEN a fever is very prevalent in a ſhip, it is almoſt always infectious, and this infection has either been viſibly introduced into her from without, by the perſons or clothes of men, or it has ariſen from cauſes exiſting within the ſhip herſelf. The means of prevention ſhould have regard to both theſe.

1. Means of preventing the Introduction of Infection.

The introduction of infection is prevented by great caution in admitting men who come from jails, guardſhips, tenders, captured veſſels, and in general thoſe who are remarkably ragged and dirty, or who have come from ſhips or other places where the fever is known to have prevailed.

The mode of manning the navy by preſſing is, I ſuppoſe, unavoidable, [2]but it is one of the greateſt means of ſowing the ſeeds of diſeaſe. As this cannot be remedied, and as the exigency of the ſervice in time of war does not permit that perſons of any deſcription be excluded, it becomes highly neceſſary to prevent the effects of the contagion that may adhere to them. This is done by ſtripping and waſhing their bodies, by cutting off their hair, and deſtroying all their clothes, before they are allowed to mix with the ſhip's company in which they are going to enter. Thoſe who have ſtrictly put thoſe methods in practice know how effectual and infallible they are, and exact attention is neceſſary, as a ſingle infected man, or any part of his cloathing, will ſpread ſickneſs through a whole ſhip's company. Men in health who are remarkably dirty, or that have been in the company of thoſe who have been affected with an infectious fever, will communicate diſeaſe as much as the ſick themſelves, and the jail diſtemper has been known to proceed from priſoners who were not themſelves affected by it. When we reflect what havoc an infectious fever ſometimes makes in a ſhip, it will appear how infinitely important it is to attend exactly to this circumſtance; for if the cauſe of the ſicklineſs of particular ſhips be traced to its ſource, it will generally be found to have ariſen from taking in infected men at Spithead, or wherever elſe the ſhip's company may have been compleated.

2. Means of preventing the Production of Infection.

Fevers of an infectious nature are not always produced by the introduction of any evident cauſes of contagion, but the infection ſeems frequently to ariſe ſpontaneouſly, as it were, being either actually generated, or being excited or rendered noxious, when it would otherwiſe have been lain dormant and inactive. The means of preventing this ſort of infection in a ſhip are chiefly freſh air and cleanlineſs, ſhelter from cold and wet, and keeping the ſhip from being too much crouded. Nature has wiſely contrived our inſtincts for avoiding filth, by rendering thoſe places loathſome to the ſenſes which have been long crouded with numbers of people, and by making it offenſive both to ourſelves and others to keep the ſame cloathes long in contact with the body. It is this, joined to a narrow and confined ſituation, that gives riſe to the jail diſtemper, and fevers of a [3]like kind that originate in hoſpitals and ſhips where ſimilar circumſtances concur.

The means that have been found moſt effectual for keeping men clean, and preventing them from neglecting their perſons, from poverty, ſlovenlineſs, or parſimony, have been,

  • 1. To ſee that all that enter be provided with a proper change of linen, and that a weekly review be made to ſee that the men are clean. Every man ſhould be made anſwerable for a certain neceſſary quantity of ſlops, and it has been the practice of ſome of our moſt able and intelligent Commanders to form the ſhip's company into diviſions and ſquads, the weekly inſpection of whoſe perſons and clothing is aſſigned to as many reſpective officers. This would both prevent the unhealthineſs ariſing from naſtineſs, and diminiſh the means of drunkenneſs procured by diſpoſing of ſlops. A review of this kind would alſo prevent ſeamen from allowing their wet and dirty cloathes to lie in a cheſt or corner till they are corrupted, and become a ſource of naſtineſs and diſeaſe. It will appear clearly to any one who reflects well on the ſubject, that a regulation of this kind is as neceſſary as any other piece of duty, and it perhaps deſerves to be made an article of the public inſtructions, inſtead of being left to the diſcretion of officers. There are ſhips that allow the men a day in the week for waſhing their cloathes, and I have obſerved the beſt effects from it. The trouble that is taken in attending to neatneſs, order, and ſobriety, never fails to be rewarded with a healthy ſhip's company, to the great ſatisfaction and private comfort of the Commander, and the unſpeakable advantage of the public ſervice. It is of conſequence that the Purſer ſhould lay in a ſufficient quantity of ſlops, ſuited to the climate for which the ſhip is deſtined, in order that there may be a ſupply after ſhe has been for ſome time from home upon a diſtant ſtation.
  • 2. To air and exerciſe the men above decks, when their duty does not lead them to do ſo, and to air their hammocks by expoſing them upon deck, eſpecially after the ports have been long ſhut in conſequence of bad weather. The hammocks cannot be thoroughly aired unleſs they are unlaſhed. This cannot with any convenience be done daily in a man of war, but it might be done from time to time by the different diviſions in rotation, and the ſame may be ſaid of ſcrubbing and waſhing. When they come to be lain upon after theſe operations, the ſame agreeable ſenſation is produced that one experiences from a change of linen, which highly conduces to health and pleaſure, like all other natural and moderate gratifications.
  • 3. To keep the ports open as much as poſſible, and to have ſcuttles in them for the admiſſion of freſh air. This is extremely uſeful every where, but particularly in the Weſt-Indies. It ſhould never be neglected to cut ſcuttles in the ſides of frigates deſtined for this ſtation, for otherwiſe the heat between decks is almoſt inſupportable.
  • 4. To fumigate frequently with fires of wood ſprinkled with pitch or roſin, carried about between decks in a pot or moveable grate, or in a tub with ſnot in it when the ports can be opened; or, if the weather will not admit of this, to burn gun-powder wetted with vinegar. The ſick berth ſhould be occaſionally waſhed all over with vinegar. The good effects of fire and ſmoke is ſtrongly evinced by this, that when it was the cuſtom for frigates to have their kitchens between decks they were remarkably more healthy than they are now that they have them under the forecaſtle, where the heat and ſmoke are diſſipated without being diffuſed through the ſhip, and cauſing a draught of air upwards as formerly, not to ſpeak of the benefit and comfort ariſing from having a large fire round which men may aſſemble and warm and dry themſelves in a ſheltered place. I leave it to thoſe who preſide in the conſtruction of the navy how far an alteration in this reſpect would be adviſeable in fitting this claſs of ſhips.
  • 5. To waſh and ſcrape all the decks frequently.* Waſhing may produce [5]unwholeſome moiſture, and care ſhould be taken to do it in dry weather, if poſſible, and as early in the day as convenient, that there may be time for it to dry. It is after waſhing that fires are moſt applicable and uſeful.
  • 6. To work ventilators, and to put down wind-ſails, as often, and for as long a time as poſſible. This is more particularly neceſſary in large ſhips, where the maſs of foul air is ſo great, and ſo remote from the acceſs of the external air, that it cannot be thoroughly ſwept off but by ſuch contrivances. Under this head it may be recommended to keep the decks as clear as poſſible from cheſts and other lumber which are in the way of ſweeping and waſhing, and prevent the free courſe of the air.
  • 7. To berth the watches alternately, which at the ſame time preſerves the trim of the ſhip. By this arrangement men lie much cooler, and it is more agreeable in every reſpect, as well as more healthy.

Though foul air and uncleanlineſs are the chief cauſes that produce an infectious fever, yet exceſſive fatigue, too much expoſure to heat, cold, and wet, ſcanty or unwholeſome food, bad water and intoxication contribute ſeverally to awaken the ſeeds of this diſeaſe.

3. Means of Eradicating Infection.

It too frequently happens that from a neglect of the means that have been mentioned, an infectious fever comes to prevail, and when once it has gained ground adheres obſtinately to a ſhip, in ſpite of cleanlineſs, good air and diet, and all the other means that have been preſcribed for [6]preventing infection. In this ſituation ſome meaſures have been thought of for eradicating this ſubtle poiſon. The means that have been found moſt effectual are,

1. To keep the ſick ſeparate from the ſound, and to cut off all intercourſe as much as poſſible, in order to prevent its progreſs. For this end it is neceſſary to appropriate a ſick berth to contagious complaints, and not only to prevent the men in health from goſſiping about it, but to find out and ſeparate ſuch complaints as ſoon as poſſible, both to prevent them from being caught by others, and becauſe recent complaints are more manageable and curable. Thoſe whoſe profeſſion it is to ſuperintend the health of the ſhip would find it for their eaſe and intereſt as well as duty, to walk over the different decks once a day or every other day in order to diſcover early thoſe who are taken ill.

2. It has been mentioned before that the cloathes of men are as dangerous a vehicle of infection as their perſons, and it ſhould be made a ſtrict and invariable rule that in caſe of death from Fever or Flux, every article of bedding and clothing about the body be thrown over-board along with it. Upon the ſame principle, in caſe of recovery from either of theſe diſeaſes, as it ſeldom can be afforded to deſtroy the clothes and bedding, they ſhould if poſſible be ſmoked and then ſcrubbed or waſhed before the men join their meſſes and return to duty, as their hammocks will frequently have occaſion to come in contact with thoſe of the other men. If the trouble of all this be objected to, let us reflect for a moment how much more troubleſome ſickneſs itſelf is, how noiſome and diſagreeable, and what a clog it is to publick ſervice; not to mention the regard due to the ſufferings of the objects themſelves.

3. It ſometimes adheres to the timbers for months and years together and can be eradicated only by a thorough fumigation. This cannot well be done but when the ſhip is in ſuch a ſituation that every perſon can be turned out in order that pots of charcoal and ſulphur may burn between decks while the ſmoke is confined by ſhutting the hatches. An action with the enemy has been known to purge a ſhip from infection.

4. To perſevere more regularly and frequently in the uſe of fires, and in the practice of ſcraping and waſhing the decks and beams, particularly [7]in the ſick births where hot vinegar ſhould be ſprinkled twice a day on the beams planks and ſides. The ſumes of pitch tar and other reſinous ſubſtances has a more powerful effect than any other ſmoke, and beſides what is thrown upon the fires, it would be uſeful to throw pitch upon a red hot iron, or to immerſe a loggerhead in a veſſel where there is pitch or tar. It has an extremely good effect alſo to white-waſh all the decks and beams with quicklime. But a complete ſmoking is the only radical and effectual remedy and the fooner it is applied the better, for the longer infection continues the more it accumulates.

It ſometimes happens that the numbers of ſick in a ſhip are ſo great that it is not poſſible to take proper and effectual meaſures for ſtopping the progreſs of diſeaſe. But when ſhe can be cleared of her ſick by ſending them to an hoſpital, no pains ſhould be ſpared to extirpate the remaining ſeeds of infection. Let their clothing and bedding be ſent along with them: their hammocks, utenſils, and whatever they leave behind, ſhould be ſmoked, and either ſcrubbed or waſhed before they are uſed by other men, or mixed with the ſhip's ſtores: the decks, ſides, and beams of their berths ſhould be well waſhed, ſcraped, ſmoked and dried by fire, and finally white-waſned all over with quick-lime.

It may be proper to mention in this place that the orlop, and all below it, by being below water is more apt to become a receptacle of naſtineſs, and by being leſs under the eye of the Captain and other officers, is more apt to be neglected. I think I have ſeen ſicklineſs propagated and continued from this circumſtance when the quarter-deck and gundecks have been kept ſufficiently clean. The well and the hold ſhould alſo be attended to, and a grate with fire in it ſhould be let down from time to time. When the hold has been long ſhut, it becomes full of a deadly air, and the common method of trying it by a lighted candle is ſo well known as hardly to need mentioning.

4. Means of Guarding againſt Infection.

[8]

Laſtly. If an infection actually prevails, and one is unavoidably expoſed to it, the beſt means to prevent its taking effect are, to live in a hearty and generous manner, particularly in the article of drink, but always within the limits of intoxication. It is of the utmoſt conſequence to avoid exceſs, irregularity and expoſure, ſuch as intoxication, fatigue, faſting, watching and getting wet. To theſe may be added certain affections of the mind, ſuch as care, grief and fear, which in like manner weaken the powers of life, and render the conſtitution more acceſſible to the aſſaults of diſeaſe. I have already mentioned ſeparation as a principal means of ſtopping the progreſs of contagion, but thoſe who are under the neceſſity of approaching the ſick ſhould avoid cloſe contact and their breath, they ſhould not go within their influence with an empty ſtomach, and ſhould ſmell to vinegar and camphor when near them.

It is highly worth while here to obſerve that the influence of infectious diſtempers does not extend ſo far as is commonly imagined. It is now known for certain that the infection of the Plague does not extend above a few yards, and the ſame ſeems to hold with regard to malignant fevers. This diſcovery is very valuable by aſcertaining the degree of riſk, for when men imagined themſelves in the ſame danger when at a conſiderable diſtance from the ſeat of a particular diſeaſe, as if they had been in contact with the ſick, they expoſed themſelves raſhly and unneceſſarily to the infection.

All the preceding obſervations concerning infection are particularly applicable to the fevers prevailing at ſea, which however are not ſo frequent in this climate as in England. There are other ſources of fever only to [9]be met with on ſhore, ſuch as the neighbourhood of woods and marſhes, the vapours of which produce intermitting and bilious fevers, and they deſerve attention here, as ſailors are occaſionally expoſed to them. The preſervatives againſt ſuch fevers; beſides temperance and the avoiding of cold, wet and fatigue, are cold bathing, good living, particularly in the article of drink, and the uſe of ſome bitter medicine, ſuch as an infuſion of Peruvian bark or chamomile flowers.

II. OF FLUXES.

THERE are few remarks to be made upon theſe, beſides what have been delivered on fevers, the ſame rules being applicable in a great meaſure to both. The flux ſeems indeed frequently to be a kind of ſubſtitute for fevers, as it prevails moſt in thoſe ſhips that have brought from Europe an infectious fever. This ceaſes upon coming into the country, and is ſucceeded by the dyſentery, which ſeems to be the laſt effort of the contagion, modified into this form by the influence of the climate. It ſeems at other times to be a ſpontaneous diſeaſe as well as fever; for both will ſometimes ariſe in this climate at ſea without any ſuſpicion of infection or a ſpecific quality of the air, and merely from circumſtances of heat, cold, wet, fatigue, intemperance, &c.

With regard to prevention, beſides the rules of cleanlineſs, dryneſs, ſmoking and airing, which are neceſſary to prevent and root out fevers, attention ſhould be paid that men upon firſt coming to this climate be expoſed as little as poſſible to ſudden changes of heat and cold, or to hard labour, eſpecially in the night air, or in rainy weather. As it is the diſeaſe moſt incident to thoſe new-comers who uſe a ſea life, it is probable that the diet, and other circumſtances peculiar to a ſea life, tend to produce [10]it, and therefore a freſh and vegetable diet ſhould be uſed as much as poſſible upon firſt coming into this climate, and indeed ever afterwards. As the bowels are the ſeat of this diſeaſe, every error in diet ſhould be carefully avoided, and moderation in point of the quantity of what we eat and drink is as neceſſary as the choice in point of quality. The nature of the diſeaſe is ſuch that it is neceſſary to pay greater attention to cleanlineſs and the ſeparation of the ſick than in fevers, as it is more catching and more offenſive. It has been found of material benefit in preventing dyſeateries to put quick-lime into the water, the bad quality of which concurs with other cauſes in producing them in this climate. This is a good practice every where, and at all times, for nothing is more powerful in ſweetening and preſerving water than this ſubſtance.

I have thus gone through the two acute diſeaſes to which ſeamen are moſt liable, namely, Fever and Flux. If I were to mention any others, they would be Colds and feveriſh and rheumatic complaints in conſequence of cold and wet. All ſorts of fevers may be more or leſs owing to cold and moiſture, and infection itſelf will frequently not take effect without their influence. They are fruitful ſources of complaint even in hot climates, and it is a great point to preſerve clothing uniform and dry as the body when under the influence of external heat is extremely ſenſible to every change and viciſſitude in the quality of the air. To prevent theſe effects I have nothing to add to what has been already mentioned, except to recommend a prudent uſe of ſpirituous liquors in caſes of expoſure and fatigue, and to ſuit the clothing to the climate and feaſon. The virtue of ſpirits is very much heightened by infuſing garlick in them, and this is perhaps the beſt known preſervative for ſeamen againſt the cold and damps of northerly climates.

There is another circumſtance highly deſerving attention, though not referable to any of the articles we have mentioned. It is the ſtate of the ſhip's coppers, which not being tinned are extremely apt to contract verdigriſe, one of the moſt deadly poiſons known, and frequently the unſuſpected cauſe of diſorders.

REMARKS on the WEST-INDIA Station.

[11]

The following remarks upon this ſubject are important, as they particularly reſpect the Weſt-India ſtation.

1. The abuſe of ſpirituous liquors is extremely pernicious every where, but a number of circumſtances concur to make it particularly ſo here. Rum is not only cheap and eaſily procured, but that which is ſold to ſailors is generally of an extremely bad and unwholeſome quality. Add to this that this ſpecies of debauchery is more hurtful in a hot than in a cold or temperate climate. No pains ſhould therefore be ſpared to keep ſuch rum from them, and care ſhould be taken that they be ſupplied with what is old and ſound. A water or two more ſhould be added to the grog in this climate, or wine ſhould be ſerved in place of it.

2. Seamen ſhould be allowed to go on ſhore as little as poſſible, eſpecially at night, for they are here expoſed not only to the land air from marſhes that are generally near the ſhore, and thereby catch intermittent fevers, but they find the means and opportunity of getting drunk. The ſure and natural remedy of theſe evils is to prevent them as much as poſſible from going aſhore, and on no account to permit them to ſtay all night. Many valuable lives would be ſaved by each ſhip hiring a boat's crew of negroes or others ſeaſoned to the climate for the purpoſe of wooding and watering. It moſt commonly happens that part of the ſhip's company are under the neceſſity of performing theſe duties, and in this caſe they will be preſerved from harm by each man taking half a wine glaſs or leſs of the tincture of Peruvian bark before going aſhore. If this is [12]too expenſive, or cannot be ſupplied in ſufficient quantity, any bitter tincture, or even a dram of plain ſpirits, will in ſome meaſure anſwer the ſame purpoſe.

3 The cold bath, eſpecially in the morning, before the heat is intenſe and the perſpiration profuſe, has been found of the utmoſt benefit in preſerving health in hot clinates. Thoſe who have had the perſeverance to make their men practice it, have been amply rewarded for their trouble by their ſhip's company remaining healthy. I could name inſtances of this fact both in the Eaſt and Weſt-Indies.

4. Care ſhould be taken not to harrais men too much with labour or other hardſhips upon firſt coming to this climate, for theſe are favourable to the attack of the fevers and fluxes with which almoſt all ſhips are more or leſs ſeaſoned upon their firſt arrival.

5. As men are more ſubject to ſickneſs in port than at ſea, this might be remedied by making the ſhip ride with a ſpring upon the cable, and by making her lie as much out of the lee of the land as is ſafe and convenient, eſpecially where the adjacent ſhore is muddy or ſwampy. This laſt circumſtance is in ſome ſituations of the utmoſt conſequence, and a hundred fathoms in a road has been known to make a moſt eſſential difference in the Lealth of a ſhip's company.

OF WATER.

As water is one of the articles moſt eſſential to the health of a ſhip's company, it deſerves particular attention. Spring water is to be preferred to running water, as the latter, eſpecially in a hot climate which teems with life, is apt to be impregnated with decayed vegetable and animal ſubſtances, ſuch as leaves, graſs, wood and infects. This is the moſt prejudicial [13]kind of impurity, for the mineral impregnations common in ſprings are ſeldom at all unwholeſome, and do not tend like the other to make the water corrupt. It is of conſequence that the caſks be well ſeaſoned by age and uſe, and a fumigation with ſulphur before they are filled has the beſt effect in preventing them from contaminating the water. It has alſo been found that butts by being filled for ſome time with ſea water, are thereby prevented from communicating any bad quality to freſh water. If running water only can be had, the beſt means of rendering it pure and ſweet is to put a pint of quick-lime into each butt when it is filled. I have mentioned that this has been thought to have ſome effect in preventing the flux. There are ſeveral other ſubſtances that have been found uſeful in correcting bad water, ſuch as allum, cream of tartar, burnt biſcuit, vinegar and acid fruits, ſuch as tamarinds.* If water is groſsly impure, filtering is one of the beſt means of purifying it. As a dripping-ſtone will not produce enough for a ſhip's company, the following expeditious method may be practiſed. Let a quantity of ſand be put at the bottom of a barrel placed on one end, without the head, and let another barrel of a much ſmaller ſize, with both ends knockt out, or an open cylinder of any kind, be placed erect in it, and almoſt filled with ſand; if impure water be poured into the ſmall barrel or cylinder, it will riſe up through the ſand of both barrels, and appear pure above the ſand of the large one in the interval between it and the ſmall one. But if water ſhould be offenſive by being long kept, the moſt effectual and expeditious method of ſweetening it is by expoſing it to the air in as divided a ſtate as poſſible; and this is beſt done by Mr. Oſbridge's machine, which no ſhip ſhould be without. If it is wanting, the place of it may in ſome meaſure be ſupplied by blowing air through the water with a longnozzled bellows, or the following contrivance will be found to afford a ſufficient ſupply of ſweet water to particular meſſes, and will anſwer the purpoſe of a dripping-ſtone. Let the narrow mouth of a large funnel be filled with a bit of ſpunge, over which let there be a layer of ſand and [14]gravel covered with a piece of flannel, and over the whole another layer of ſand. Care muſt be taken to change the ſand, ſpunge, &c. whenever they become loaded with the impurities of the water.

There ſhould be in every ſhip an apparatus for diſtilling water in caſe of diſtreſs. This conſiſts merely of a head and worm adapted to the common boiler, and the diſtillation may go on while the victuals are boiling.* More than eight gallons of excellent freſh water may be drawn off in an hour, from the copper of the ſmalleſt ſhip of war.

III. OF SCURVY.

[15]

THIS is the diſeaſe moſt fatal to ſeamen next to fevers. It was formerly perhaps as fatal, but ſome modern improvements in the mode of life have rendered it leſs frequent and violent. Under it I comprehend not only the actual diſeaſe called Scurvy, but that habit of conſtitution which though compatible with all the duties and functions of a ſeaman, yet upon the leaſt ſcratch being received, particularly on the lower extremities, in this climate, a large and incurable ulcer enſues, which loſes many good and able men to the ſervice. It is chiefly owing to the quality of the diet at ſea, but this is aſſiſted by a variety of other circumſtances that render its progreſs more rapid, and cauſe the diſeaſe to appear when diet alone would not have the effect. The greateſt part of the food of a ſhip's company is neceſſarily ſalt proviſions. Biſcuit and peaſe, though of a vegetable nature, are hard of digeſtion, and though they no doubt qualify the animal food, they do not anſwer the purpoſe of freſh vegetables. There are ſeveral other circumſtances beſides diet which contribute to render a ſailor's life unnatural and full of hardſhip, and concur with it in producing ſcurvy. Theſe are chiefly a ſcarcity or bad quality of water, a cold moiſt and foul air, either from climate or from the manner in which a ſhip is kept, bad clothing, damp and dirty bedding or apartments, and too much crouding. It is alſo remark'd that the lazy and indolent are always moſt liable to it.

With regard to proviſions, beſides its being recommended to carry to ſea as large a ſupply of live ſtock and ſmall beer, or other fermented liquors as the nature of thoſe articles will allow, the world has lately been made acquainted with articles of a more durable and portable nature, which ſo qualify the ſalt proviſion and crude biſcuit that they can be uſed without inducing diſeaſe. Theſe are chiefly Malt and Sourkrout, [16]with which may be enumerated portable ſoup, vinegar, the juice of lemons and oranges, the eſſence of ſpruce, and in general all vegetable ſubſtances preſerved either by ſalt,* ſugar, or vinegar. Sago, ſalop, currants, and eggs preſerved by greaſing and putting them in ſalt, may alſo be mentioned, if not as common ſtore, at leaſt as neceſſaries for the ſick and recovering. It muſt likewiſe be obſerved that ſuch is the excellence of thoſe articles of food and medicine, particularly the malt, lemons, oranges, and ſourkrout, that they are efficacious in curing as well as preventing the Scurvy

It is to be obſerved, with regard to the Weſt-Indies, that when a ſhip is in port encouragement ſhould be given to the ſale of roots, greens, fruits, ſugar and molaſſes. Theſe may be procured by exchanging for them as much of the ordinary allowance of bread, beef and pork, as can be ſpared. Butter being an unwholeſome article of diet in this climate, [17]and alſo very corruptible, ſhould be no part of the victuals ſent to this ſtation. Its place may very properly be ſupplied by ſugar or molaſſes, the natural produce of the country. Theſe are extremely wholeſome, nouriſhing, and anti-ſcorbutic, and thoſe who have tried to ſubſtitute them for butter have found the change to be popular among the ſeamen.* When captures are made, in which there are molaſſes, ſugar, rice or cocoa, part ſhould be appropriated to the uſe of the ſhip's company and deducted from their fourth part.

Beſides diet, there are other articles of the naval oeconomy almoſt as eſſential to the prevention of this diſeaſe. As indolence is both a cauſe and a ſymptom of it, idleneſs and ſkulking ſhould be rigidly diſcouraged, unleſs the diſeaſe is ſo far advanced as to render it cruel and even impoſſible to force men to take exerciſe. The ſame tone of mind that inclines a man to lazineſs diſpoſes his temper alſo to low ſpirits, which tend to foment every diſeaſe, but particularly the ſcurvy, and encouragement ſhould be given to whatever produces jollity, contentment and good humour. It is uniformly obſerved that ſeamen are leſs ſubject to ſcurvy than marines and landſmen, which is probably owing to the greater activity of their life and alacrity of their minds. The other circumſtances of moſt importance are, dryneſs, airineſs, roomineſs, every article of cleanlineſs, and warm clothing where the climate and ſeaſon require it. The directions given in theſe points for the prevention of fevers will alſo ſerve on this head, and it may be remarked farther in favour of cleanlineſs that it is not only directly conducive to health, but to good order, [18]ſobriety and other virtues.* It is alſo worth obſerving, with regard to general health, that there are few things more deſerving of attention than the guarding againſt exceſſive fatigue. It would be well if it could be rendered conventent at all times, except in caſes of danger or emergency, to put the men at three watches inſtead of watch and watch. This would have the moſt happy effect upon their health, by allowing them to have compleat reſt, and to get thoroughly dry. Fatigue is a very frequent means of bringing on diſeaſe and breaking the conſtitution, and it is a circumſtance in which young officers are apt to forget themſelves. They ſhould therefore take care how they call all hands wantonly, and oblige men to exertions beyond their ſtrength, eſpecially as this will be ſubmitted to more readily by ſailors than any other ſet of men, from the generous alacrity of their nature. One of the happy effects reſulting from the good treatment of ſeamen is the encouragement it gives men to enter into the ſervice, and to do their duty with cheerfulneſs and reſolution. There is ſomething more daunting to the mind of man to ſee his fellow creatures languiſhing in diſeaſe, or periſhing miſerably from ſores or ſickneſs, than in the terrors of fire and ſword.

The whole of theſe obſervations are meant to have reſpect to the prevention of diſeaſe, and the means of it fall within the province of thoſe who are entruſted with the direction of the navy, either in a civil or military capacity. But with regard to cure and recovery a great deal is alſo in their power by providing and recommending proper diet and cordials.A liberal uſe of good wine would ſave many lives, both by its virtue in curing low and malignant fevers, and as a reſtorative to convaleſcents, [19]numbers of whom are loſt by relapſes, or pine away in dropſies and other chronic complaints, for want of ſuitable diet in the article of drink as well as food. The neceſſaries of a ſurgeon are by no means adequate to this, and care ſhould be taken to lay in portable ſoup, rice, ſago, ſalop and currants, and to procure freſh meat wherever it can be had for the convaleſcent and ſcorbutic patients. It is needleſs to ſay that this would not only be an object of humanity, but a great pecuniary ſaving, conſidering how expenſive it is to ſupport invalids, and to replace men; not to mention that it is upon the health and lives of men that all public exertions eſſentially depend.*

Since we are upon this ſubject, it may be obſerved that there are ſeveral particulars in which officers may be ſubſidiary to the ſurgeons. For example, it is of the greateſt conſequence that men ſhould complain early, as very little medical attention will prevent a fever or flux if taken in time, particularly in this climate. As ſeamen are averſe to complain, and may eſcape the attention of the ſurgeon till their diſtemper has gained ground, officers, by noting in a book made on purpoſe for the daily inſpection of the ſurgeon, thoſe who are miſſed from duty upon calling the watch, and even thoſe who are remarked to droop and look ill, may get men put upon the ſick liſt, and proper means uſed for their recovery in the beginning of their complaints.

Upon the whole, there is no ſituation of life in which there is room for more virtues, more conduct and addreſs, than that of a ſea officer. Men are thrown upon his humanity and attention in more views than one: They are ſubject to a more arbitrary exertion of power than the conſtitution authorizes in other departments of the State: it is their character [20]to be thoughtleſs and neglectful of their own intereſt and welfare, requiring to be tended like children, and from their utility, bravery and other reſpectable qualities, they are ſurely entitled to a degree of parental tenderneſs and attention, both from the State they protect and the officers they obey.

THE END.
Notes
It is to Dr. Lind we are indebted for the moſt accurate, ingenious, and original obſervations on this ſubject, and Sir John Pringle has given an excellent compendium of Capt. Cooke's improvements on his elegant diſcourſe before the Royal Society.
It is not meant by this to inſinuate that every commander is abſolutely accountable for the health of his ſhip's company, and cenſurable when they are ſickly, for this may depend on his predeceſſor, or a ſtubborn infection may have prevailed from the original fitting and manning which he may not have ſuperintended.
It was an article in the inſtructions of the late Commander in Chief in America, that the ſhip's company ſhould be divided into as many diviſions as there were Lieutenants, and theſe divided into ſquads, with a midſhipman appointed to each, who ſhould be reſpectively reſponſible for the good order and diſcipline of the men.
It would tend greatly to the health of ſeamen to have a navy uniform eſtabliſhed, that they might always have in their poſſeſſion, and be accountable for a certain quantity of decent apparel, ſubject to the regular inſpection of their officers.
*
Lord Howe gave it as part of his inſtructions to waſh the upper decks every day, the lower decks twice a we [...], and the orlop once a week at leaſt. He alſo requeſted that every waſhing, ſmocking, maſtering of cloa [...]hes, or other means for the health of the ſhip, ſhould be marked in the log-boo [...], and the reaſon to be a ſigned there if they were omitted at the regular times. That it is m [...]thod of this kind alone that can make ſervice truly effective and eaſy, is too well known to the experienced [...]f [...]cer to need inculcating.
Dryneſs is perhaps of as great conſequence as any one thing that can be named, for not only the complaints commonly called colds are more owing to wet than cold, but moiſture is the means of producing or at leaſt exciting dangerous fevers and contributes greatly to the production of ſcurvy. It is obſerved that new ſhips are generally unhealthy. Whether this is owing to moiſture merely as ſuch, or to ſomething ſpecifically noxious in the exhalation of wood I will not take upon me to determine, but the fact is well aſcertained. Wood is moiſt either by being uſed in too recent a ſtate or by being injudiciouſly ſtript of its bark and outer ſurface when piled and expoſed to the weather in yards.

I owe this obſervation as well as many others in this treatiſe to an officer whoſe extenſive merits and virtues in the great line of his country's ſervice places him above praiſe in a ſubject like this.

This bad air, however, is not productive of epidemic diſeaſes, the only air that is really to be feared in this way being that which is fouled by the ſtagnating effluvia of the living human body. The air of the hold which renders bilge water ſo offenſive is rather to be conſidered as diſagreoable than pernicious unleſs when ſo ſtrong as to produce ſuffocation.
This is a remark which, ſo far as I know, has not been made by any author, and till obſervation convinced me of it I fancied the reverſe to be true. It is certain that there is ſomething in the tropical climates averſe to the production or continuation of infectious fevers. I have ſeen ſo many inſtances of crouding and naſtineſs in ſhips and hoſpitals without contagion being produced, and which in Europe would have excited it, or rendered it more malignant, that the fact is aſcertained beyond a doubt. Farther, thoſe ſhips which bring this infectious fever from Europe in general get rid of it ſoon after coming to this climate, and nothing but the higheſt degree of neglect can revive it. This brought into my mind what is related of the Plague at Smyrna and other places; that it diſappears at the hotteſt part of the ſeaſon, and it is a diſeaſe we never hear of in the Torrid Zone. It is very diſſicult to aſcertain the cauſe of this, as every thing relating to infection is very obſcure. We can conceive it to be owing to the greater degree of airineſs which the heat of the climate makes neceſſary, or the employment of leſs woollen clothes; there may be ſomething in the ſtate of the body, particularly of its ſurface, which diſpoſes it leſs to produce or imbibe the poiſonous effluvia, or more probably the virulent matter is of ſuch a degree of volatility as to be readily diſſipated in a certain degree of heat.
This may be thought too troubleſome to be practiſed in the hurry of ſervice, and I have in general purpoſely avoided mentioning any thing but what is eaſily practicalle and highly important to the body of ſeamen at large, but ſuch a precaution as is mentioned alone may, at leaſt, be ſerviceable to officers, or to a ſhip's company where ſervice is eaſy and on a ſmall ſcale.

It was found the means of preventing ſickneſs on the coaſt of Guinea, by Mr. Robertſon, ſurgeon of the Rainbow, in the late peace, and by the ſame means Count Bonneval and his ſuite entirely eſcaped ſickneſs in the camps in Hungary while half the army was cut off by fevers. In conſequence of Mr. Robertſon's and Capt. C [...]ingwood's repreſentation of the effects of the bark, both in preventing and curing fevers, the ſhips fitted for the coaſt of Guinea have been ſupplied gr [...]t [...]touſly with it, and Government would find its account in extending this to all the Tropical ſtations.

*
Sir Charles Saunders found that the water of the river St. Lawrence brought on fluxes, and that four pounds of lurnt biſcuit put into each butt removed the noxious quality.
*
The place of it may be ſupplied by a tea kettle with the handle taken off and inverted upon the boiler with a gun barrel adapted to the ſpout paſſing through a barrel of water, or kept conſtantly wet with a map. I cannot help here mentioning alſo, that in caſe of great extremity, it has been found that the blood may be diluted, and thirſt removed by wetting the ſurface of the body even with ſea water, the vapour of which is always freſh, and is inhaled by veſſels on the ſkin, whoſe natural function it is to imbibe the moiſture that ſwats in the atmoſphere.

It may be added, that in caſe of neceſſity, every contrivance ſhould be fallen upon to ſave rain water, which is always wholeſome and pure.

As bread is a principal article of diet, the utmoſt care ſhould be taken in preſerving it, and great advantage would ariſe from keeping it in caſks that are water tight inſtead of keeping it in bags or laying it looſe in a bread-room. Capt. Cooke by this method, and by giving it a caſt of the oven in the courſe of the voyage, preſerved his biſcuit ſound in every reſpect for more than three years. The ſame may be ſaid of malt, which being well rammed in caſks of this kind will keep for nearly the ſame length of time. It is alſo to be remarked that flour by being extremely well preſſed will keep any length of time, and it would perhaps, in many caſes, anſwer better to ſend it to foreign ſtations in this form rather than that of biſcuit. There would be a conſiderable ſaving in the expences of freight, and the biſcuit would be ſounder, by being baked on the ſpot.
*
Green vegetables of all kinds may be preſerved by ſalt for more than a twelvemonth, with their original flavour and freſhneſs when waſhed from the brine.
Capt. Cooke found the malt moſt beneficial, and that a pint of wort given twice a day never failed to remove the firſt appearances of the complaint. Dr. Lind, whoſe obſervations have been more accurate and extenſive than thoſe of any other Phyſician, is of opinion that the juice of oranges, lemons, and limes, is the muſt powerful anti ſcorbutics. The Reman aermies are ſuppoſed to have been preſerved from diſeaſe by the uſe of vinegar.
This is commonly left to the management of the ſailors themſelves who generally make a very bad bargain, but it is worth making a public concern of it. It might be managed by inſtituting ſhort allowance in the following manner. Let only ſo much bread, flour, or ſalt proviſions, particularly the latter, be iſſued as are abſolutely neceſſary, and let the balance for the ſhip's company be thrown into one eſtimate: Let the agent victualler pay into the Purſer's hands, the value of theſe proviſions in money at the contract price, with ſuch a diſcount as will allow for the uſe of the money. Let the Purſer, in return, give him a receipt as for ſo much priviſion as have been checked. This money being diſiributed in the name of ſhort allowance, will enable the people to buy vegetables, and the King's proviſions will be ſaved for a time of want, or for a cruize. More money will be raiſed in this manner than by the common method of compenſating for the ſhort allowance, by making it payable at bone, and the ſmall additional expence is no conſideration in compariſon to the health of the men. It has been found by experience, that men have preſerved their health and ſtrength in long ſouthern voyages with the allowance of ſalt proviſion for one day in the week only.
*
Molaſſes and rice were found ſo effectual in preventing and curing the ſcurvy in North-America that Lord Howe iſſued a general injunction for the uſe of them, and the ſucceſs was anſwerable to his expectation. The uſe of ſalt proviſions ſhould at the ſame time be ſtrongly prohibited. Oatmeal is in a great meaſure an unneceſſary article of expence to Government in victualing for this country, both becauſe the articles we have mentioned are fully more cheap and wholeſome, and the ſeamen like it ſo little that they will hardly touch it. A ſmall quantity, however, would be extremely uſeful if employed to make what is called Flummery or Sooins, which is a food extremely light, cooling, and eaſily prepared, and was found to cure ſcurvy effectually on board the Eſſex in the late war. Capt. Cooke found wheat to anſwer in place of oatmeal, and this or barley would be a good ſubſtitute, for part of it at leaſt, in victualling the navy. A great part of the oatmeal that is ſerved is thrown overboard, and without determining which grain is moſt wholeſome, any change that can induce men to eat a great quantity of either with their ſalt proviſions muſt have a good effect.
*
The impertance of this will further appear when we conſider the effect of filth upon the general health of mankind, for it is the origin of a very large tribe of acute diſeaſes (by which are meant fevers and feveriſh complaints.) This is one of the curſes entailed on us by clothing, which, more than any of the deviations from nature peculiar to our ſpecies, renders man ſubject to diſtemper above the reſt of the animal creation.
Though there is ſtill room for improvement, the Navy, I am told, is now on a better footing with regard to the health and comfort of ſeamen than in former times. The victuals are in general ſounder and better; the civil department has ſhewn in many inſtances a readineſs to adopt the means and to furniſh the articles that have been recommended for the health of the men; and ſuch commanders as I have the honour to know are humane, attentive and intelligent.
*
It would be endleſs to enumerate the accounts furniſhed by hiſtory of the loſſes and diſappointments to public ſervice from the prevalence of diſeaſe in fleets. Without mentioning the diſaſters occaſioned by it to Sir Richard Hawkins, who ſays that in twenty years he had known of ten thouſand men who had ſeriſhed at ſea by the ſcurvy, nor to Commodore Anſon. who in the courſe of his voyage loſt more than ſcur fifths of his ſhip's company. I ſhall recount a few inſtances that have occurred to me in hiſtory of expeditions that have been fruſtrated in their object from the force of diſeaſe alone: That under Count Mansfedt in 1624: that under the Duke of Buckingham the year after: that under Sir Francis Wheeler in 1693: that to Carthagena in 1742: that of the French under D'Anville in 1746; and that of the ſame nation to Louiſtourg in 1757.
Distributed by the University of Oxford under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License

Citation Suggestion for this Object
TextGrid Repository (2020). TEI. 5559 A short account of the most effectual means of preserving the health of seamen. University of Oxford Text Archive. . https://hdl.handle.net/21.T11991/0000-001A-5DFE-F