PART I.

JUNE 21, 1768. Certain buſineſs and the neceſ⯑ſary preparations for our journey delayed us till towards the end of June. However, at laſt, being properly equipped, Meſſrs. Lepechin and Guldenſteat, gentlemen, who were appointed to accompany me throughout my tour, ſet out, one rather before the other, [8] and I followed with my attendants on the 21ſt of June. The inſpection of certain places on this ſide of Moſ⯑cow, was allotted to theſe gentlemen, and I was or⯑eered to Aſtrachan; my ſhorteſt road therefore was to purſue my way to Moſcow, and to make all the poſ⯑ſible ſpeed which my heavy baggage and a change of horſes only every 50, 60, or 70 verſts would allow, in order to reach the diſtant parts I was going to, in a favourable ſeaſon.

My journey was chiefly that of a botaniſt and a mi⯑neralogiſt, of courſe, my attention was moſtly taken up with examining the ſoil and the plants of the coun⯑tries through which I paſſed, but as a deſcription of theſe would be tireſome to the general reader, I ſhall omit noticing them here, and ſpeak only of the face of the country, the towns and the people, in the pla⯑ces where I went.

July 2. On the 2d of July I found myſelf at Twer, about 388 Engliſh miles from Peterſburg, from whence we firſt ſat out. This was a few years back, a miſerable wretched village, conſiſting only of a few poor huts, but is now, under the patro⯑nage of the Empreſs, raiſed to an elegant ſtately city. It ſtands on the banks of the river Wolga, in which a great deal of fiſh is caught and conveyed in well-boats to Moſcow and Peterſburg, by the river Oka. [9] The fields here are well cultivated, and the place ſeemingly every where in a flouriſhing condition.

'Twer,' ſays Mr. Cox, who travelled with Lord Herbert, in 1778, is divided ‘into the old and new town. The former is on one ſide of the Volga, and conſiſts almoſt of wooden cottages; the latter, about fifteen years ago, was little better; but being, in 1763, fortunately deſtroyed by fire, it has riſen with luſtre from it's aſhes. The Empreſs, no ſooner in⯑formed of this calamity than ſhe, ordered a regular and beautiful plan of a new town to be ſketched by an eminent architect, and enjoined that all the houſes ſhould be re-conſtructed in conformity to this model. She erected at her own expence, the governor's houſe, the biſhop's palace, the courts of juſtice, the new exchange, the priſon, and ſeveral other public edi⯑fices, and offered to every perſon who would engage to build a houſe with brick, a loan of £300. Eng⯑liſh, for twelve years, without intereſt. The money advanced on this occaſion was £60,000, and ſhe has ſince remitted one-third of the ſum. The ſtreets, which are broad and long, iſſue in a ſtraight line from an octagon in the centre. The houſes of this octagon, and of the principal ſtreets are of brick, ſtuccoed white, and form a very magnificent ap⯑pearance. This town is not yet finiſhed, but when completed, will conſiſt of two octagons, with ſeveral [10] ſtreets leading to them, and interſecting each other at right angles.’

‘Here is an eccleſiaſtical ſeminary under the in⯑ſpection of the biſhop, and admits 600 ſtudents, a ſchool of 200 burgher's children, and an academy for the education of the young nobility, admitting 120 ſcholars. The city is a place of conſiderable com⯑merce, and the river is covered with boats. It owes it's principal trade to it's advantageous ſituation, be⯑ing near the conflux of two rivers, along which are conveyed all the goods and merchandize ſent by water from Siberia and the ſouthern provinces, to Peterſburg.’

‘The Volga, which is the largeſt river in Europe, riſes about eighty miles from Twer, and begins to be navigable a few miles above the town. It is there, about the breadth of the Thames at Henley, but exceedingly ſhallow; when it joins the Twerze it is broader, deeper and more rapid. The riſing ſpirit of commerce, within theſe few years, has en⯑creaſed the people much; they are about 10,000 in number. The city lies in the middle of a large plain, and the country, round, produces in great abun⯑dance, wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, hemp, flax, and all kinds of vegetables. It's foreſts yield oak, birch, alder, poplar, mountain-aſh, pines, firs, junipers, &c.’

[11] Moſcow, July 14. From Twer, we went to Moſcow, about the diſtance of 125 miles, where I was de⯑tained till the 14th of July. The river Moſcow, on which the city ſtands, is remarkable for the quantity of petrified ſea-ſubſtances, every where found in the environs of this place, ſome inches deep in the banks. Here are alſo ſome phyſic-gardens, and pains have been taken to cultivate the genuine rhubarb. A large field has been ſown with it, and there is little doubt, as it ſeems to thrive in this climate, but, that with proper attention, they will bring it to ſuch per⯑fection, as to exceed that of the Chineſe. Experiments have been made of it in Scotland. Choroſchowa, a village not far from Moſcow, belongs to the crown, and is renowned for it's breed of horſes.

'The city of Moſcow," ſays Mr. Cox, ‘lies in the form of a creſcent, ſtretched to a prodigious extent, and innumerable churches, towers, gilded ſpires and domes, white, red and green buildings glittering in the ſun, form a moſt ſplendid appear⯑ance, and yet theſe are ſtrangely contraſted by an intermixture of numberleſs wooden hovels. We croſſed the river Moſcow on a floating raft, faſtened to each bank, which the Ruſſians call a living bridge, from it's bending under the carriage. This city is certainly the largeſt in Europe, it's circumference, within the rampart which encloſes the ſuburbs, being exactly thirty-nine verſts, or twenty-ſix miles, (nearly [12] equal to that of Pekin in China, which including it's ſuburbs, meaſures twenty-ſix miles and three-quar⯑ters,) but it is built in ſo ſtraggling and disjointed a manner, that it's population in no degree correſponds with it's extent; it is calculated to have 277,535 inhabitants. The ſtreets are in general exceedingly long and broad, ſome paved, others, particularly in the ſuburbs, are formed with trunks of trees, or are boarded with planks like the floor of a room; wretched hovels are blended with large palaces, and cottages of one ſtory ſtand next to the moſt ſuperb and ſtately manſions; many brick ſtructures are covered with wooden tops; ſome of the wooden houſes are painted, others have iron doors and roofs. The churches are built in a peculiar ſtile of archi⯑tecture, ſome have domes of copper, others of tin, gilt or painted green, and many roofed with wood. In a word, ſome parts of this vaſt city have the ap⯑pearance of a ſequeſtered deſart, other quarters, of a populous town, ſome of a contemptible village, others of a great capital.’

‘The river Moſcow, from which the city takes it's name, flows through it in a winding channel, but excepting in ſpring, is only navigable for rafts. We hired, ſays Mr. Cox, a carriage, during our ſtay at Moſcow, it was a chariot and four horſes of different colours, we could get no other; the coachman and poſtillion were dreſſed like the peaſants, with high [13] cylindrical hats, the former, with a long beard and ſheep-ſkin robe, ſat upon the box, the latter, in a coarſe, drugget garb, rode upon the off-horſe, and behind the carriage, was an enormous ſack of hay. This is the cuſtomary vehicle of the city. They dont put up their horſes here from morning to night, but about dinner-time, turn them looſe into the court⯑yards of the houſes where the maſter dines, and leave them to feed on the hay they carry with them.’

‘The palace at Moſcow, is a vaſt aſſemblage of nu⯑merous buildidgs, diſtributed into many ſtreets and reſembling a town, and all the timber uſed in theſe and other buildings, are wholly faſhioned with an axe, carpenters here never uſing a ſaw, a chiſel, or a plane. The palace gardens are of conſiderable ex⯑tent, and contain ſome good gravel walks; in ſome parts, the grounds are laid out in a pleaſing and natural manner, but in general, the old ſtyle of gar⯑dening prevailed, and continually preſented us with rows of chipped yew-trees, long ſtraight canals, and a profuſion of prepoſterous ſtatues.’

‘We ſoon ceaſed to be ſurprized that our carriage had four horſes, nothing being more common than to meet the nobility with complete ſets driving about the ſtreets. The hackney-coaches are ſtationed in the ſtreets as with us, are without tops, have moſtly four wheels, and are provided either with a long [14] bench, or one, two, or three ſeparate ſeats, like arm⯑ed chairs, placed ſideways, and their fares are ſo reaſonable, that ſervants often take a coach, when they have any diſtance to go. The coachamn ge⯑nerally drives a full trot, at the rate of eight or nine miles an hour.’

‘Nothing can exceed the hoſpitality of the Ruſſians; we could never pay a morning viſit to any nobleman without being detained to dinner: the principal per⯑ſons of diſtinction keep open tables, and have muſic during dinner. They have alſo a great number of retainers and dependants mixed with their ſervants, who ſtand occaſionally round their lord's chair, and ſeem highly pleaſed, if diſtinguiſhed by a nod or a ſmile. At an entertainment given us by a Ruſſian nobleman, we were particularly ſtruck with the quan⯑tity and quality of the fruit which was brought in, after dinner, pines, peaches, apricots, grapes, pears, cherries, none of which can be there obtained but in hot-houſes, and yet ſerved up in the greateſt pro⯑fuſion. There was a delicious ſpecies of ſmall me⯑lon, ſent by land-carriage from Aſtracan, though at the diſtance of 1,000 miles. Theſe melons ſome⯑times coſt five pounds each, and at other times are ſold for half-a-crown. One inſtance of elegance which diſtinguiſhed the deſert, and which had the prettieſt effect imaginable, muſt not be omitted. At the upper and lower end of the table were placed two [15] china vaſes, containing cherry-trees in full leaf and fruit hanging on the boughs, which was gathered by the company; we obſerved, alſo a curious ſpecies of apple, not uncommon here, it is ſomething larger than a golden pippin, has the colour and tranſparency of pale amber, and has an exquiſite flavour. The tree thrives here in the open air, without any particular attention to it's culture, but degenerates in other countries. The Ruſſian nobles diſplay a great de⯑gree of grandeur and magnificence in their houſes, domeſtics, and way of living. Their palaces, at and near Moſcow, are ſtupendous piles of buildings, and in the country they live like independent princes; as the feudal barons in early times, they have their ſepa⯑rate courts of juſtice, and govern their vaſſals with an almoſt unlimited ſway.’

‘At the furtheſt extremity of the ſuburbs, in a ſe⯑queſtered ſpot, is a kind of Vauxhall, the proprietor of which is an Engliſhman, by name Mattocks, to whom the Empreſs has given an excluſive patent for all plays and public maſquerades for ten years. Here is a fine rotunda, the place was well illumina⯑ted, and the entrance money four ſhillings.’

‘The places of divine worſhip at Moſcow are ex⯑ceedingly numerous; including chapels, there are above 1,000. There are 484 public churches, 199 of theſe are built with brick, the reſt are of wood. [16] The former are ſtuccoed or white-waſhed, the latter are painted red.’

‘There are two convents in this city, one a nunne⯑ry, and the other a monaſtery for men. In the prin⯑cipal chapel of the nunnery, lie buried ſeveral Cza⯑rinas and princeſſes of the imperial family, in ſtone coffins, ranged on the floor in rows; each coffin is covered with a crimſon or black velvet pall, edged with gold or ſilver lace, and embroidered on the middle with a croſs, over which, on feſtival days, are laid other coverings of gold or ſilver tiſſue, richly ſtudded with pearl or precious ſtones. Having ſeen the chapel, &c. as we entered the antichamber, the abbeſs ſtruck the floor with a cane, when inſtanta⯑neouſly a chorus of about twenty nuns received us with hymns, and continued ſinging as long as we ſtaid.’

‘The churches of Moſcow are divided into three parts, the veſtibule, the body, and the ſanctuary, reſembling our chancel. In the body are generally four pillars ſupporting the dome, and theſe pillars are decorated with paintings of the Virgin Mary and Saints. The moſt magnificent church in Moſcow, has an enormous chandelier of maſſive ſilver hanging in the centre of the dome, and weighing 2,940 pounds, it was made in England, and a preſent from the prime-miniſter of Ruſſia. The ſkreen that di⯑vides [17] the ſanctuary from the body of the church is in many parts covered with plates of ſolid ſilver and gold, richly worked. Among the many paintings which cover the inner-walls, is the head of the Vir⯑gin, ſuppoſed to have been painted by St. Luke, and greatly celebrated in this country, for it's power of working miracles. It's face is almoſt black, it's head ornamented with a glory of precious ſtones, and it's hands and body are gilt.’

‘Moſcow is the centre of the inland commerce of Ruſſia, and connects the trade between Eu⯑rope and Siberia. The only navigation to this city is formed by the Moſcow river, communi⯑cating by the Wolga or Volga, but as the Moſ⯑cow is only navigable in ſpring, on the melting of the ſnows, the principal merchandize is conveyed to and from this place in winter, upon ſledges. The whole retail commerce is carried on in the Khitaigo⯑rod or centre of the city, where, according to Ruſ⯑ſian cuſtom, all the ſhops, without houſes, are collect⯑ed in one ſpot. The place is like a fair or market, conſiſting of many rows of brick buildings, with alleys between them. The tradeſman comes to his ſhop in the morning, remains there all day, and re⯑turns home to his family in the afternoon. Every trade has it's ſeparate department, and they who ſell the ſame goods have booths adjoining to each other. Furs and ſkins form the moſt conſiderable article of [18] commerce in Moſcow, and the ſhops which vend them occupy ſeveral ſtreets.’

‘Among the curioſities of Moſcow, I muſt not omit the market for the ſale of houſes. It is held in a large open, ſpace in one of the ſuburbs, and ex⯑hibits a great variety of ready-made houſes, thickly ſcattered upon the ground. The man who wants a dwelling repairs to this ſpot, mentions the number of rooms he requires, examines the different timbers, which are regularly numbered, and bargains for that which ſuits him beſt. The houſe is ſometimes paid for on the ſpot, and taken away by the purchaſer, or ſometimes the ſeller contracts to remove it and erect it where it is to ſtand; and, a dwelling may be purchaſed, removed, raiſed and inhabited, in the ſpace of a week. Theſe ready-made houſes are ge⯑nerally collections of trunks of trees, tenanted and mortaiſed at each end, into one another, and nothing more is required, than the labour of tranſporting and erecting them. Wooden ſtructures of very large dimenſions and handſome appearance, are occaſio⯑nally formed in Ruſſia, with an expedition almoſt inconceivable to the inhabitants of other countries: a remarkable inſtance of this diſpatch was diſplayed the laſt time the Empreſs came to Moſcow. Her Majeſty propoſed to reſide in the manſion of Prince Galatzin, which is eſteemed the completeſt edifice in the city, but as it was not ſufficiently ſpacious for [19] her reception, a temporary addition of wood, larger than the whole houſe, and containing a magnificent ſuite of apartments, was begun and finiſhed within the ſpace of ſix weeks. This meteor-like fabrick was ſo handſome and commodious, that the materials, which were taken down at her Majeſty's departure, were ordered to be re-conſtructed as a kind of impe⯑rial villa, upon an eminence near the city.’

‘At the entrance of each ſtreet in Moſcow, is a chevaux-de-frize gate, one end of which turns upon a pivot, and the other rolls upon a wheel; near it is a centry-box, in which a man is occaſionally ſtatio⯑ned; and, in times of riot or a fire, the centinel ſhuts the gate, all paſſage is immediately ſtopped, and any mob or concourſe of people prevented.’

‘Among the public inſtitutions of this city, the moſt remarkable is, the Foundling Hoſpital, endow⯑ed in 1764, by the preſent Empreſs, and ſupported by voluntary contributions. It is an immenſe pile of building, of a quadrangular form, and capable of receiving 8,000 children. Every child, that is brought, is admitted, the rooms are large and lofty, each infant has a ſeparate bed, the bedſteads are iron, the ſheets are changed weekly, and the linen three times a week. No cradles are allowed, no ſwaddling, but the children are all looſely dreſſed. The director of this hoſpital is ſo beloved and ca⯑reſſed [20] by the children, that, whenever he enters a room, they croud round him, and are as emulous of ſhewing their fondneſs, as if he was their parent. They are divided into claſſes, according to their ages; after remaining two years in the nurſery, they are admitted, boys and girls together, into the loweſt claſs, where they continue five years. The boys are taught to knit, card hemp, flax and wool, and work in dif⯑ferent manufactures. The girls learn to knit, net, and do all kinds of needle-work, ſpin and weave lace, and are employed in cookery, baking, and houſe⯑work of all ſorts. Both boys and girls learn to read, write, and caſt accounts.’

‘At fourteen, they may chuſe any branch of trade they like beſt, and for this purpoſe, there are differ⯑ent ſpecies of manufactures eſtabliſhed in the hoſpi⯑tal, of which the chief is embroidery, ſilk ſtockings, ribbonds, lace, gloves, buttons, and cabinet-work. A ſeparate room is appropriated to each trade. Some boys are inſtructed in French and German, and a few in the Latin tongue. Others learn muſic, drawing and dancing. About the age of twenty, the found⯑lings receive a ſum of money, with ſeveral other ad⯑vantages, which enables them to follow their trade in any part of the empire, a very conſiderable pri⯑vilege in Ruſſia, where the peaſants are ſlaves and cannot leave their village, without the permiſſion of their maſter.’

[21] ‘In the hoſpital there is a theatre, of which all the decorations are the work of the foundlings; they conſtructed the ſtage, painted the ſcenes, and made the dreſſes, and they perform plays in the Ruſſian language. I was ſurpriſed, ſays Mr. Cox, at the eaſe with which they trod the ſtage, and was pleaſed with the gracefulneſs of their action. There were ſome agreeable voices in the opera. The orcheſtra was filled with a band by no means contemptible, which conſiſted entirely of foundlings, except the firſt vio⯑lin, who was their muſic-maſter. They perform alſo ballets, and dance with great taſte and elegance. The Empreſs countenances this ſeminary of theatri⯑cal repreſentation, from a deſire of diffuſing among her ſubjects that ſpecies of entertainment, which ſhe conſiders as a means of civilization, and of enriching the Ruſſian theatres with a conſtant ſupply of per⯑formers.’

Kapawna. From Moſcow I purſued my way to Wolodimir, through Kapawna, a village about 23 Eng⯑liſh miles from Moſcow. This is a place much cele⯑brated for it's nanufactures, and here are ſeveral gun-powder mills, belonging to private perſons. The country is covered with pine-trees, and the ſoil is every where full of flints, bearing evident traces of petri⯑factions.

[22]Wolodimir is a city ſituated on ſome highlands along the northern banks of the river Kljaſchma, and though not very populous or well-built, yet on account of it's delightful and advantageous ſituation, it's having 24 pariſhes, being partly built with free-ſtone, and partly with wood, and the houſes encompaſſed with gar⯑dens, it makes a good appearance and affords a noble view. Near this city are ſtill to be ſeen the ruins of the ancient town, which extended itſelf near ſeven miles from the preſent boundaries. Whilſt we were here it was fruit-ſeaſon, and we had no reſt day or night, ow⯑ing to thoſe who watch the cherry-orchards. In the middle of each, they erect a ſcaffold, from which they ſtrain lines to every corner of the orchard. On each of theſe lines is faſtened a rattling hammer, which if the line is in the leaſt moved, gives a ſtrong alarm. During the ripening of the fruit, men are appointed to watch theſe orchards, who frighten the birds by ſtrik⯑ing theſe rattles, and keep off interlopers, by flinging at them. They have in general but two kinds of cher⯑ry, except in the biſhop's garden, where are grafted ſome others and which ſeem to thrive. A large quan⯑tity of this fruit, vegetables, and cucumbers for pick⯑ling, are conveyed to Moſcow, about 84 miles diſ⯑tant. In the country round Wolodimir, are many no⯑ble manſions, the ſeats of the nobility, though the lands conſiſt in general of dry, ſandy heaths. In this neighbourhood are ſome hills of lime-ſtone, which they dig and carry to Twer and Moſcow to be burnt. The [23] countryman fancies, that if he covers his cart-load of burnt lime but thinly with aſp-leaves, that the hardeſt and moſt violent rain cannot injure it.

July 28, Mugina. From Wolodimir, on July 28, we made the beſt of our way to Kaſimof; through Mu⯑gina, Wjoſchki, and Conſtantinowo. Beyond Mugina the country is woody, with a marſhy ſoil, ſo woody, that there is ſcarce any open land to be ſeen, and the villagers are obliged to clear it away near their habita⯑tions, in order to procure ground for neceſſary tillage, which they do, by firing theſe woods, regardleſs of the conſequence, whether it burns to the diſtance of half a mile ſquare, or ten miles. So that we ſee ſtanding a number of burnt trunks of trees, which they are too indolent to grub up. There are however many noble⯑men's ſeats in this vicinage, but they bear the appear⯑ance of a lazy and foreſt economy. The timber in theſe foreſts is chiefly fir and birch, ſome pines, and underwood of various kinds. The highways, on ac⯑count of their marſhineſs are, all along, laid with the bodies of young firs, which make the roads very rough, and diſagreeable. Not far from Wjoſchki are two glaſs-houſes, which are at no loſs for fire.

Conſtantinowo. The inhabitants of Conſtantinowo are moſtly potters, and carry their wares to all the adja⯑cent towns; for the land, round the villages in this neighbourhood, is chiefly potter's earth.

[24] Kaſimof, about 130 miles from Moſcow. Kaſimof is a mean-built town, and the lands annexed to it belong to the regency of Woroneſh. Notwithſtanding an ex⯑cellent free-ſtone is found here, fit for building, the inhabitants make no uſe of it, for the whole town is built, in the Ruſſian mode, with timber; and what is moſt ridiculous, they lay their ſtreets and highways with boards and timber alſo, and the few churches and large buildings which are erected with ſtone, are built with ſuch mortar as came firſt to hand.

South-eaſt of this manſion ſtands the mauſoleum of the Khans, which the proprietor, though in his garden, has ſpared from deſtruction. It has not the leaſt go⯑thic appearance, but is a ſtrong, oblong, ſquare-ſided building, compoſed of ſmooth-hewn free-ſtone. It has, round it's top, a plain cornice. The plate re⯑preſents a ſouth view of it. The weſtern end contains a ſmall vault or cloſet, deſigned as I apprehend, for private prayer, according to the Mahommedan cuſ⯑tom. On the weſt ſide is a ſmall entrance, paved with rough unhewn ſtones, and on the north ſide a ſmall window to let in the air. The other part of the mau⯑ſoleum has a vault, in which are tomb-ſtones. Theſe [26] vaults are covered with earth within the walls, on which grow ſome elder-trees. The length of the whole building from eaſt to weſt is above 47 Engliſh feet, the breadth from north to ſouth about 26 feet, and it's height about 16 feet.

The little vault on the inſide is not much above thirteen feet broad, from eaſt to weſt. The entrance to the great vault is on the ſouthern ſide, almoſt in the middle of the building, cloſe to the partition be⯑tween the two vaults. It is a ſmall door, not quite three feet and a half wide on the outſide, increaſing to near four feet and a half within, but without any ap⯑pearance of hinges. On this door is a table or ſlab of marble, with the following inſcription in Arabic.

Viz. Of the Hegyra, this is, if I miſtake not, ac⯑cording to our calculation, in the year 1520. The great vault is about twenty-one feet wide, about ſeven⯑teen broad, and twelve feet high. The northern wall has two windows or openings, and the eaſtern wall but [27] one, which are like the door, narrower towards the outſide, and were formerly croſſed with iron-bars, which ſome one has thought proper to remove. On the ground, within the walls, are eight diſtinguiſhable grave-hills, about ſeven feet long, covered with ſtones. One of theſe is almoſt ſquare, whereby it appears, that two bodies have been there interred. Indeed with⯑in the vaults over which theſe tumuli or hillocks are raiſed, there are nine ſkulls to be ſeen. At the head or weſt end of each grave-hill was erected a tomb-ſtone five or ſix feet high, the top of theſe ſtones ſhaped off in an obtuſe angle. There is now but two of theſe ſtones ſtanding, the others are broken to pieces and ſcattered about. Theſe ſtones on one ſide were orna⯑mented with flowers and ſtars, on the other was an Ara⯑bian inſcription, neatly finiſhed and divided into ſpa⯑ces. Underneath theſe vaults is a ſubterranean ſepul⯑chral cave, of the ſame length with the vaults, but not ſo wide, the entrance into which is a narrow open⯑ing, formerly ſtuffed up with earth and ſtones. In this low ſepulchral cave dead bodies have been laid on a wooden ſcaffold, but modern curioſity having trou⯑bled their reſt, nothing now is there to be ſeen, but ſcattered ſkulls, rib-bones, hair, and ſome yellow, green, and brown ſtriped taffaty, which has preſerved it's texture and colour, tolerably well.

In the neighbourhood of this town they gather the Birthwort, a plant renowned as a family-medicine [28] among the Ruſſian peaſants. It is reported, that this plant boiled is an infallible cure for all pains in the limbs, and that it's fruit, which reſembles a fig, if eaten raw, cures all relapſes of fevers.

Auguſt 3. I left this place for Murom the 3d of Auguſt, and travelled all along the banks of the Oka, where are a number of luxuriant meadows. The Ruſſian countrywomen here, wear a particular head-dreſs which I ſaw not in any other place. This is a flat, ſtiff cap, the top of which forms a pair of horns, and round which, according to their faſhion, they wind a piece of cloth which hangs down behind.

Auguſt 4, 5. On the 4th and 5th we paſſed many lordſhips, for the nearer we approached Murom, the more villages we ſaw on both ſides. Juſt before we enter Murom, is a chapel, built with wood, and dedi⯑cated to St. Elias, near which is a ſmall houſe of pray⯑er, and an encloſed well, which this holy man is ſaid to have dug himſelf, and which the ſuperſtitious peo⯑ple believe is of great benefit to the head and eyes, if they waſh themſelves with it's water devoutly.

Murom, about 54 miles from Kaſimof. Murom, like the town of Kaſimof, is built cloſe to the river Oka, and ſuffers much by the rapidity of it's waters, which waſh away the bank on which the town ſtands, and occaſions many of the buildings to fall in. The old [29] inhabitants remember that the houſes ſtood formerly as far out as the middle of the river, and that a church, among other buildings was once carried away by the ſtream. It even now undermines ſome houſe or other annually; and, ſome at preſent ſtand ſo near upon the brink of the ſhore, that it is raſhneſs to inhabit them. Here are alſo ſome public buildings, two churches, and a convent, which ſeem hourly to wait their fall, and would have been in the water, e're now, had they not been ſupported with large ſtones placed beneath them. Were willow-trees planted againſt the bank, the earth would ſtand firm againſt the waters, and theſe diſaſters might be prevented.

The inhabitants of this town are more induſtrious in the cultivation of their gardens, than the people ge⯑nerally are in little Ruſſian towns; for, they not only raiſe culinary herbs of moſt kinds, but alſo melons and fruits. Some houſes have good apple-orchards annexed.

It may not be diſagreeable to ſome readers to know, that in this vicinage grows the Spurge, called by Linnaeus, Euphorbia paluſtris, which the people uſe as an emetic, and if the leaves want efficacy, they take an extract of it's root, made with hot-water. This excites but little vomiting, and that at one caſt, nor does it gripe. They aſſured me it was a good remedy [30] in obſtinate relapſes of fevers and internal durities. The doſe, five Ruſſian Solotniks in weight.

The river Oka running here through limy, loamy and ſandy ſhores, will not be ſuppoſed to carry any precious metals; but, the fact is, that there are peo⯑ple in Murom, that employ themſelves during the ſummer, in waſhing the ſand near the town, and are richly repaid in what they find. This is ſmall grains of gold, ſilver and copper, and ſome pretty ſmall ſtones. I have often ſeen them at work; they dig the ſand with a ſpade, and waſh it in troughs. Such grains as they find, they put into a quill, ſtop it up and hang it round their necks. In theſe waſhings I have met with ſmall topazes, cornelians, and agates. Theſe certainly muſt have been waſhed down the river from the demolition of old tombs, or other accidental circumſtances. Perhaps thoſe grains of gold and ſil⯑ver which they find, have the ſame origin.

Motmoſs. Not far from this river, at a village called Motmoſs, about twenty-two miles from Murom, we met for the firſt time in Ruſſia, people afflicted with wens, and though the village is ſmall, there are many, particularly children and young folks, labouring in the higheſt degree under this diſorder. They ſay this evil is not leſs common in other neighbouring villages, and as the brook-waters uſed here, are of a martial or [...]halybeate nature, and carry many marly particles, [31] the hitherto-unknown origin of this malady might perhaps be found out, if thoſe waters, where the diſor⯑der is common, could be diſcovered of a ſimilar qua⯑lity.

Here is a great deal of iron-ſtone dug in this neigh⯑bourhood, one hundred weight of which will yield 30lb. of neat iron. The method of preparing it for the melting-houſe is, to burn it firſt, which they do on ſtacks of pine-trunks. There are iron-mills not far off, where they caſt and forge iron.

Auguſt 15. On the 15th of Auguſt, we left Murom, in our way to Arſamas, and in a village about twenty-four miles from it, I took notice of the uſe the coun⯑try people made of the Siberian Centaury. Having pick⯑ed only the broadeſt leaves, they dry them, beat them to powder in a fine woolen cloth, and uſe that powder as a ſtiptic to ſtop the bleeding of wounds. It ſoon cloſes the wound and heals it.

Foreſt of Muran. In the foreſt of Muran, great plenty of muſhrooms are found, which the country-folks gather for food, and lay up for the winter. Theſe, with bread, is the chief ſupport of the poor. Such as they lay up for the winter, they ſalt and dry. Every kind of muſhroom is here eaten, except the fly muſh⯑room, and that which grows in dung. They either eat them raw with ſalt, boil them in oil, or roaſt them; [32] but, the moſt remarkable muſhroom, is that which they call Oſinowik, which implies, growing in aſh-wood. As ſoon as it is gathered and laid in the air, or as ſoon as it's ſtem begins to ripen, the part underneath the head takes on a greaſy and blue colour; if broken in the middle, it's body ſeems quite white, but after a few ſeconds turns bluiſh in the air, and in the end changes into a moſt beautiful ultramarine. Break it as often as you will, the broken parts will have the ſame appear⯑ance, and if it's watery juice is preſſed out, it's drops, in falling, have a bluiſh caſt, but momentaneouſly change, in an open veſſel, into the above-mentioned beautiful color, which will dye linen the ſame. It is a pity however, that at the moment of it's higheſt per⯑fection, it ſhould grow gradually pale. Linen dyed with it, and even the juice will go through every ſhade into a colour, called Saxon green, and in the ſpace of twenty-four hours, will change into a bluiſh green; which grows paler ſtill, and cannot be preſerved by any of the uſual means. If dipped in water, it grows pale ſooner, and almoſt loſes it's whole colour when dying.

Aug. 19. Arſamas, about 90 miles from Murom. On the 19th, we reached Arſamas, about ninety miles from Murom. This town ſtands on an eminence, has ſome trade, and it's inhabitants live more by commerce than by huſbandry, except in the article of onions, of which they tranſport a great quantity into the eaſtern parts of the empire.

[33]However filthy and ill-built the town of Arſamas is, on account of the various trades and buſineſs car⯑ried on in it, it is more than ordinary plentiful, populous and wealthy, which ſhews how far a little trade and a few manufactures will enrich a ſtate. The whole town, a few public offices and ſhop-keepers excepted, con⯑ſiſts of ſoap-boilers, tanners, blue-dyers, and ſhoe⯑makers. The latter work out, and tranſport a great deal of leather, here prepared.

Little but the common ſort of leather is tanned in Arſamas, except indeed a few Ruſſia hides, which are not in the greateſt eſtimation. They tan with the bark of Salix Arenaria, a ſpecies of willow, and render the ſkins ſmooth, with the pureſt and thinneſt birch-oil, which they convey here by the river Kama. They have no mills to grind their tan, but reduce it to pow⯑der by beating it with heavy ſharp-edged hammers, as they generally do throughout all Ruſſia.

The ſoap here made is white, and but of one ſort. They make their lye of common wood-aſhes only. The ſoap is boiled in iron furnaces ſo large, as to con⯑tain from four tons weight Engliſh of greaſe to ſeven tons, and they put ten pounds of ſalt to 100 lbs. of greaſe. The greaſe is then boiled often upon the lye, which they frequently change, for ten or twelve days, till the ſurface ſhews that the ſoap is completed. The furnace then is ſuffered to cool for twelve days more, [34] and the ſoap is dug out with iron ſpades. Of a quan⯑tity of greaſe, they generally draw four-fifths of it in ſoap. Of the ſcum-ſoap, they make a ſud, and if the greaſe be good, it yields pound for pound.

The dyers in this town dye only that blue linen ſo faſhionable among the Ruſſian women, except a lit⯑tle narrow cotton, which is here made. Their method of dying is merely boiling the linen in water, in which they put very little indigo and woad, with ſome wood-aſhes, ſmoothing the cloth afterwards by preſſing it, then watering it, and ſtretching it abroad till it is dry. Before they dye the linen, they beat it, that it may not take too much colour. Some women dye their cloths red themſelves, with a wild red they gather in the fields and alſo green, in a dye formed from birch-twigs and allum. The yellow chamomile, (Anthemis tinctoria,) yields an excellent yellow colour, either for dying or painting.

As the ſtreets of this town are narrow and very mud⯑dy, and all theſe naſty trades are there carried on, the reader may naturally judge of the impurity of it's air. And though the inhabitants have no wells, nor any water to drink but what they take from a ſmall brook that runs through the town, they throw into this brook without heſitation all the filth they make.

[35]Beſides theſe manufactures, they were eſtabliſhing one for pot-aſhes, upon a new plan.

In all the low lands about Arſamas, grows the Hel⯑lebore (Veratrum Album,) well known to the peaſants throughout Ruſſia, on account of it's noxious quality, for which reaſon they pick it out from the graſs when cut. But as this is the time of it's ſeeds ripening, the plant ſhould be rooted out, or the ſeeds burnt, to pre⯑vent the evil increaſing. Young and unexperienced lambs will frequently eat it in ſpring, and occaſion their death; and, ſome hungry horſes, if it be left in the hay, will alſo eat it; when it occaſions griping and foaming at the mouth. Should it chance to fall into a yard where poultry is kept, it is ſure to kill them. Notwithſtanding the plant has this deadly quality, the peaſants uſe it for a ſalutary purpoſe. They dry the root, powder it, and ſpread this powder over thoſe biles, which certain maggots, in this country called Oeſtri, cauſe in the ſkin. Nay, they ſometimes take the root freſh internally, to expell worms.

Lopatina, about 16 miles from Arſamas. Upon an eminence oppoſite Lopatina, about 16 miles from Ar⯑ſamas, are ſome veſtiges of an old intrenchment, which appear to have been thrown up in the early wars car⯑ried on in this country, againſt the Mordvines.

[36] Kawara. In the village Kawara, lying eaſt of Lo⯑patina, is an abyſs to be ſeen, which ſwallowed up a farm and it's inhabitants, owing to ſome ſubterraneous waters, which in their courſe undermined the ground. There was lately alſo a ſimilar ſinking of the earth, which is now the channel of a flowing water. And there are probably here ſome ſubterranean waters, as it is well known of a lake in this neighbourhood crowd⯑ed with fiſh, than when they are aware of the net, they retire to an abyſs, the depth of which has not yet been fathomed.

Theſe Mordvines inhabit the right ſhore of Pjana, dwell in ſome ſcattered and ſequeſtered cottages, and have preſerved but few of their ancient cuſtoms, owing to their being, for the moſt part, converted to chriſtia⯑nity. They ſpeak however a language of their own, and have ſome peculiarities of dreſs, among the wo⯑men. In other reſpects, they are like the Ruſſians.

‘The Mordvines are of Finniſh origin, were of two tribes," ſays Mr. Tooke, 'and were a long time in ſubjection to the Tartars, but even then had their peculiar Khans. They compoſe a very conſiderable nation, and at every numeration of them, they have been found to increaſe in the ſame proportion as the Ruſſian peaſants. Formerly, they had a nobility among them, but thoſe familes have been a long while extinct. Before the introduction of chriſtiani⯑ty, [37] a Mordvine was not permitted to marry out of his own tribe, but at preſent this is not regarded, and they ſettle in this or that tribe as they pleaſe, preſerving always ſome principal characteriſtic, ſe⯑veral particularities of dreſs, and many diſtinctive cuſtoms.’

‘Theſe people reſemble more the Ruſſian peaſants, than either the Tſcheremiſſes or the Tſchouwaſches, (of whom we ſhall ſpeak by-and-by,) 'and conform more to their way of living. The Mordvines have com⯑monly brown harſh hair, a thin beard, and lean face; it is very rare to find a pretty woman among them. They are honeſt, laborious and hoſpitable, but ſlow, and imitate the Ruſſians and Tartars in ſeveral things. There are not many unbaptized among them, but theſe eat pork without any ſcruple, whilſt all the heathen Tſchouwaſches, and all the people of Aſiatic Ruſſia abhor and abſtain from it, as the fleſh of the impureſt of animals.’

‘Since their ſubmiſſion to Ruſſia, they purſue a life of agriculture, and are not fond of towns, but always form themſelves into little villages, and that in and about foreſts. Their villages, houſes, farms, agri⯑culture and their little flocks, their goods, their food, and their whole economy, differ in nothing from the Tſchouwaſches and Tſcheremiſſes. In like manner the Mordvines have a little encloſure near their [38] houſes, wherein they plant roots and herbs for the kitchen. They are not ſo fond of hunting as their neighbours. The Mordvine women are employed in the ſame works as the Tſcheremiſſian, and have neither leſs dexterity nor application; the ſtate of their families, their riches and their taxes, are alſo the ſame.’

‘The dreſs of the men is that of a Ruſſian pea⯑ſant, except their ſhirts, which they pink and em⯑broider about the neck and openings.’

The dreſs of the married Mordvine women conſiſts, of a high-ſtuffed cap, ſewed with various coloured thread, with a ſlap hanging down behind, to which are tied ſeveral little chains and jingling toys; linen ſhifts and petticoats, which they ornament with red and blue dyed needlework, according to their taſte and fancy. They wear alſo a girdle, from which hangs down be⯑hind a kind of apron, embroidered with worſted of various colours, and bordered with fringe, taſſels, co⯑rals and other rattling and jingling ſtuff. Round about the girdle, beſides the above, they wear ſeveral other party-coloured fringed pieces. Thoſe who have ſuch ornamented girdles, have their ſhifts more elegantly ſtitched, and wear a wide, linen, upper-gown, with ſhort ſleeves, half-an-ell wide. Theſe upper-gowns are ſometimes died yellow. Their upper-ſhift, (for they generally wear two,) is faſtened round the throat, with [39] a ſmall pin, and upon their boſom with a large one, from which hangs ſuch heavy collections of corals, copper-buttons, ſmall little chains, medals, coins, lit⯑tle bells, and other jingling things of the like kind, that the Mordvine dreſs is not leſs heavy than a horſe's harneſs. Ear-rings belong to the every days dreſs, but, on particular occaſions, they wear bracelets, wound thrice round the wriſt, and exactly ſimilar to thoſe worn in India.

The girls' dreſs has leſs of theſe jingles, but in other reſpects it is the ſame, except that they wear no cap, but braid their hair into a tail, agreeable to the Ruſ⯑ſian faſhion, to which are tied ſome knots of fringes and ribbands. The old faſhion was to braid the hair in eight or nine ſmall treſſes, thoſe behind each ear ra⯑ther larger than the reſt, having in both a ſquare buc⯑kle, to which hang medals and other clattering toys. But all the treſſes were lengthened underneath with woollen ſtrings, and paſſed through the girdle. I af⯑terwards took notice, that even the married Mord⯑vine women, near the Wolga, had their hair in a ſimi⯑lar way, braided into a large tail with black ſheep's wool, ſo as to reach down to the knees.

[40]Although the Mordvine women, eſpecially thoſe of Erſanian origin ^*, whoſe dreſs I have here deſcribed, are almoſt the filthieſt of all nations throughout the whole Ruſſian empire; yet, the men deſerve the praiſe of being induſtrious farmers, and ſurpaſs their coun⯑trymen in this particular. They breed as many bees as they can, "and will have" ſays Tooke, ‘from 100 to 200 hives.’ Thoſe that live about the woods are hardy and expert huntſmen, and turn every thing in their way to advantage.

‘Some of their cuſtoms according to Mr. Tooke, are as follow. Their marriages are tranſacted by nego⯑tiation, and they bargain for their wives as do the Tſcheremiſſes. The Kalym or price of the bride is commonly between eight and ten rubles, each ruble about four ſhillings ſterling; a proof that this nati⯑on is not over rich. The time for the celebration of the nuptials being come, the father of the young man goes to fetch the bride, whoſe father conducts her by the hand, and delivers her to the former. Her mother on this occaſion, preſents a little bread and ſalt to the father-in-law of her daughter; and then the maid takes leave of her parents, which is always accompanied with tears; her father-in-law leading her away covered with a veil. On her arrival at the bridegroom's, they all ſit down to table; the [41] young man pulls his cap over his eyes, and places himſelf by her ſide. A cake of three feet in length is placed on the table, which the father of the bride⯑groom takes, and preſents the pointed extremity of it under the bride's veil, ſaying, Open thine eyes to the light; be thou happy in thy children, and never deſ⯑titute of bread! Immediately after this, the bride⯑groom ſees his beloved for the firſt time, whom his father had bought for him, without conſulting him. This done, they begin to eat and divert themſelves by dances, ſongs and ſports, to the ſound of a pipe, but always with the mug in their hands. When the young couple prepare for bed, the bride makes a great deal of reſiſtance, inſomuch that the aſſiſtants, force her to ſit down on a mat, and then taking up the corners, carry her upon it into the bed-chamber. Parents very frequently promiſe their children, while yet in their infancy, and as a ſign of the engagement, interchange the pointed ends of horns, which ſerve them for ſnuff-boxes. The young woman, however, is not bound by this compact, but if the lad is in⯑clined to marry elſewhere, he is obliged to pay a certain number of rubles by way of fine. It is law⯑ful among them, to have ſeveral wives at once, but they ſeldom uſe this privilege.’

‘A widower always chooſes to marry his ſiſter-in law when he can. If the parents will not conſent to this, he tries to ſlide into her hand under the table, [42] a little loaf, without being perceived, pronouncing at the ſame time, My ſiſter-in-law ſhall be kept for me. On ſaying this, he muſt run out of the houſe as faſt as he can, for if he is caught, he is immedi⯑ately regaled with a ſhower of blows, as hard and as thick as they can be laid on him; but, if he has addreſs enough to eſcape them, the fair-one belongs to him.’

‘Among the chriſtian Mordvines, the brides like⯑wiſe cover themſelves with a veil during the marri⯑age ceremony. Great care is taken that they do not meet a man in their way to church, it being looked upon as an unhappy omen.’

The dead are interred in their beſt cloths; the com⯑pany ‘eat cakes and drink beer about the grave, and place a portion of each upon it.’

‘The greateſt part of the Mordvines are now chriſti⯑ans, but thoſe who are Pagans, call their ſupreme being by the name of Pas, the Mokſcanes call him Skie, which ſignifys the ſky. They have a mother of the gods and a ſon of god whom they call Inil⯑ſchi Pas. Their Maſter Pas, is a ſubterranean divi⯑nity, not very beneficent. The Nikolai Pas is the St. Nicolas of the Ruſſians, whom they hold in great veneration. The Mordvines attribute to him the proſperity of the Ruſſian empire, for which reaſon [43] they light up candles to him in the Ruſſian churches, and in their houſes hold his image in great reſpect. They have no image, and their adorations, ſacrifices and feſtivals in general, are the ſame with the reli⯑gious ceremonies of the Tſcheremiſſes and the Tſchouwaſches. Though the Pagan Mordvines have no knowledge of the religion of the Ruſſians, they ſuppoſe them to have peculiar divinities, and to ob⯑tain their favour, they ſacrifice game, and make ob⯑lations of cakes and liquors every Chriſtmas and Eaſ⯑ter-day. Whenever they hear thunder they exclaim, Paſchangui Pourguini Pas, that is, Have mercy on us O God Pourguini! But they make no offering of any kind to this deity. Their prayers are the ſame with thoſe of the people we have ſo oftened mentio⯑ned. The countenance they put on when they pray, the manner of lying with their faces on the earth, and ſeveral of their other cuſtoms ſeem borrowed from the Tartars.’

Auguſt 28. On the 28th of Auguſt, I left the Pjana and purſued my way to Saranſk. This diſtrict is re⯑markable for that rich black ſoil ſo common to the Sura, Wolga, and other rivers, which flow from the eaſt into the Wolga. In all theſe parts, the happy huſ⯑bandman has no occaſion to manure his grounds, and commonly fallows his land but every third crop. Here are ſpots where the ſoil never fails, but, where, if it diminiſhes in richneſs, there is plenty of ground [44] in the leſs inhabited parts, plenty of lay land, which if turned up, produces the fineſt arable imaginable. Was this rich ground to be manured, the corn would be too luxuriant and fall. With all theſe advantages, it is to be lamented, that they ſow neither hemp, flax, or corn, more than they have occaſion for their uſe; but, only provide for themſelves and the next market. The people here are alſo very reprehenſible for heap⯑ing up their dung as they do, on hills, the produce of their numerous herds, as ſuch enormous dung-hills be⯑get monſtrous ſwarms of flies, which are very trou⯑bleſome.

Arath, about 35 miles from Arſamas. In the town of Arath reſide many potters. Theſe burn their veſſels in a large pot full of holes, reſembling a tub, ſet in the ground, which the Ruſſians uſe by way of oven, and when the veſſel is red-hot, quench it in boiling water in which ſome flour has been thrown. They are of opinion this gives the pots a greater ſolidity and hardneſs.

Tolſkoi Maidan, about 11 miles from Arath. As we travelled further on, we paſſed villages, particularly about Tolſkoi, where their cattle were dying with a plague or contagious diſtemper. It is evident, that the chief cauſe of this diſorder is their moiſt paſture and the little care that is taken to keep the cattle dry and clean.

[45] Potſhinki, about 20 miles from Tolſkoi. At Potſhinki are ſome fine meadows, where there is a breed of hor⯑ſes, for the Imperial life-guards, to which this ſtud belongs. The ſtallions are moſtly of Daniſh race, in order to get large horſes. The number generally kept is 30, and about 720 mares. Potſhinki is a pretty place, a borough town, has a garriſon, three churches, and ſome thouſand houſes.

Saranſk, about 46 miles from Tolſkoi, Sept. 1. On the 1ſt day of September, we arrived at Saranſk, and though the farmers were here buſy with their harveſt, we had a ſtrong froſt. Saranſk is a ſmall place, in the province of Penſa and regency of Caſan, and inhabi⯑ted by huſbandmen, a few tradeſmen and merchants excepted. In Saranſk, as in all other little towns, in the innermoſt part of the empire, many of the female inhabitants are employed in dying woollen yarn, with the juice of ſome herbs growing in this country; and, as I wiſh to communicate any uſeful intelligence I could meet with; that ſome of my readers may profit by my enquiries, I was very inquiſitive into the nature of this dye. The principal ingredient is a kind of moſs, which grows very copiouſly in all the fenny woods of Ruſſia, and is univerſally known by the name of Seleniza, in Latin, Lycopodium complanatum. The country people gather it by handfuls, tie it in bunches, and carry it to market, where it is ſold very cheap. This moſs is firſt reduced to powder, and then made [46] into the conſiſtency of pap, and very ſour with flour. The yarn to be dyed, remains one or more nights in this mixture, which gives it a yellowiſh caſt, it is then waſhed and dried, and is fit to receive any other co⯑lour. The common people, who know not the uſe of allum, have recourſe to this preparation, in almoſt all dyes; but, the Mordvines, the people of Tſchuwa, and the Tartars, uſe either the common yellow phea⯑ſant's-eye (Adonis verna,) or the common wormwood, with a ſmall quantity of ſingle-ſeeded broom mixed, the Geniſta tinctoria, but ſometimes, they uſe only the thiſtle, (Carduus heterophyllus,) with it's pretty, yellow-colouring leaves, called by the Erſane race of Mord⯑vines, Piſhelaoma-tikſched, (the green herb,) with which they boil the wool that has been dyed blue, with in⯑digo or woad, and give it a beautiful green.

The herbs commonly made uſe of here for dying, are the following.

For a light yellow, the yellow chamomile, (Anthemis tinctoria,) the ſingle-ſeeded broom, the dyer's thiſtle, or melilot, (Serratula,) weeds growing generally throughout Ruſſia.

For a fine yellow, the water-hemp agrimony, (Bidens tripartita.)

[47]For a deep red, the roots of lady's bed-ſtraw, (Gal⯑lium molugo,) or the wood-ruffe, (aperula tinctoria,) which they call in Ruſs, Marjona.

To attempt ſcarlet, they uſe the common marjo⯑ram, (Origanum.)

For green, they dye blue wool, with the above-na⯑med yellow-dying herbs, or birch leaves. There are alſo ſome who poſſeſs the art of making a high green, by an addition of allum, the unblown ears of the reed (Arundo calamogroſtis,) and a yellow green, from the berries of their foul-tree, (in Ruſs, Kruſchina.) The country women know where to gather all theſe, in their proper ſeaſons.

For blue, they have no other colouring than the wild woad, which grows in little Ruſſia, but they oc⯑caſionally purchaſe indigo, or logwood from the mer⯑chants, which they uſe in their own way.

In order to die yellow, with the ſingle-ſeeded broom, it's powder is mixed with that pap-like preparation I have mentioned; but, the wool receives firſt a yel⯑lowiſh tinge, by laying a week in that preparation, be⯑fore the broom is mixed with it. To brighten the co⯑lour, after the wool has been ſoaked and dried, they waſh it at different times in lye. The melilot is boil⯑ed in water, with the addition of a little allum, and [48] the yarn, after having undergone the firſt preparation, is waſhed in this dye or liquor. They dye ſilk, and ſometimes wool, with the flower of the yellow cha⯑momile, and the African marigold (tagetes,) but with theſe ingredients, the allum is particularly neceſſary. The water-hemp agrimony, affords a pretty high yel⯑low, if boiled with ſome allum, and this grows ſtill more flaming, by the addition of the root of lady's bed-ſtraw and wood-ruffe; and, the oftener the article is dipped in this dye, the brighter the colour. This wild red, (for ſo I call the root of lady's bed-ſtraw and wood-ruffe,) is like moſt plants uſed here for dying, bruiſed in wooden mortars, and ground to powder with hand-mills. This is made into a pap-like conſiſtency with water, and placed in a warm oven for one night. Next day they add more water, and boil it, and to give brightneſs to the colour, boil ſome oak or birch-bark with it. Sometimes they add aſhes to it. And when the dye is deep enough, and luke-warm, they dip their wool two or three times in it, and once more, when the dye is boiling hot. If the colour plea⯑ſes them, they next waſh the yarn in the river, and dry it. But the colour is commonly brighteſt, when the dye conſiſts of a mixture of water-hemp agrimony, the melilot, the ſingle-ſeeded broom, and the thiſtle Car⯑duus heterophyllus, and the beſt tincture is made by that deep black-red powder, which, when the roots are gently beaten, comes off at firſt, this being, properly ſpeaking, the genuine dying bark.

[49]The uſe of the marjoram (Origanum,) is different, and was thus deſcribed to me. The flowers and crowns of this plant were gathered whilſt in bloom, dried in an oven, and reduced to powder. In the ſame manner they powder the young ſpring-leaves of the apple-tree. An equal quantity of each of theſe is taken, (though ſome will take two-fourths of melilot, one of apple-leaves, and one of boiled malt,) and well mixed with leaven, to make it ferment. As ſoon as it is ſour, it is ſqueezed out with the hands, and ſet for a whole night in a warm oven, where it is frequently ſtirred. Here it is dried; this done, it is boiled in clean water, and the dye is complete. Some go to work more ſimply, by taking equal parts of the herbs and apple-leaves, and boil them with allum. But, with this pro⯑ceſs, the red will not be beautiful. The colour thus prepared, is very bright, and will not fade by waſh⯑ing.

Iſſa, 27 miles from Saranſk, Sept. 5. On the 4th of September we quitted Saranſk, and reached Iſſa, a vil⯑lage belonging to Count Woronzo, at the diſtance of about twenty-ſeven miles, pretty late in the evening. This place is alſo remarkable for it's breed of horſes, and of courſe, little grain is here ſowed, but oats. Here is alſo a carpet manufactory, and another in an adjacent manor. The carpets here fabricated, are re⯑nowned for their beauty, and deſerve encouragement, was it only becauſe the wool, of which they are made, is [50] taken from the backs of the ſheep here bred; the works being carried on by children, over whom a ſkil⯑ful country laſs preſides, and the wool being dyed, from plants growing in the neighbourhood. The only foreign colour they make uſe of, are the braſil-wood, which dyes crimſon, if prepared with lye, the indigo for dying blue, and the log-wood for dying violet; but, theſe colours are not ſo laſting, as thoſe from the herbs I have mentioned.

Inſara, about 24 miles from Iſſa. About twenty-four miles from Iſſa, in the high road to Penſa, we found ourſelves at the city of Inſara. This is an abject place, built by the people of Streliza, during the late reign of Peter the Great, whoſe inhabitants, were neither active nor induſtrious. The town is ſituated on the banks of the river Inſara, which falls into the Iſſa. At the upper end of the city, the reſiding Sawodſhik Nikonof, has eſtabliſhed an iron manufactory, built a good houſe for himſelf, and erected a church with ſtone, which are the beſt buildings in this place. The public offices and cathedral, are in the wooden fortreſs, and in poor condition, as is another church built with wood. The iron utenſils made in this manufactory, are pots, boilers, and a kind of large ſeething veſſels, which is the chief furniture of a Tartar or Kalmuck's houſe, and which produce a good price. They manu⯑facture annually, about twenty ton-weight of theſe [51] articles, which they carry up the Wolga, to the mar⯑kets in little Ruſſia.

The iron-ſtone that ſupplys this manufactory, is about eight miles diſtance. There is alſo in this neigh⯑bourhood a manufactory for making pot-aſh.

Sept. 6. Schadin, 18 miles from Inſa. On the 6th of September we left Inſar for Penſa, and at night reached the Mordvine village Schadin, a diſtance of eighteen miles. The inhabitants of this place, are of a differ⯑ent origin from thoſe who are ſettled near the Pjana, in the regency of Niſchegorod. They are careful to diſtinguiſh themſelves from the latter, and call them⯑ſelves Mokſchanes, which expreſſes in their language, the whole race of Mordvines, and give the others, the name of Erſanes. In theſe diſtricts inhabited by the Mokſchanes, are very few villages of the other tribe, but both are occaſionally met with in the ſame villages, and with little difference between them, all along the rivers Wolga, Sok and Tſcheremſham, and other neighbouring diſtricts belonging to the regencies of Caſan and Orenburg, where they were ſent with other people to form new colonies. The Mokſchanes ſtill ſay, that before they were diſperſed, they inha⯑bited the countries about all the rivers near the Mok⯑ſcha, or Moſcow, (to which they gave their name,) as far as the river Oka, and have been governed by their own little princes. Theſe are the ſame people of [52] Mokſcha, of whom Stralenberg ſpeaks. They reſem⯑ble the Erſanes in many reſpects, particularly in their language, and yet differ in many points of female dreſs, and the pronunciation of their words, ſome of which are peculiar to this race.

This difference is eaſily diſcoverable, by comparing the female dreſs of the Erſanes, with the annexed re⯑preſentation of the holiday dreſs of the Mokſcha⯑nian women. The latter have in general more elegance and taſte; their cap is not ſtuffed ſo high, nor do they hang any rattling toys to it, but it is only plainly worked with the needle, and the cap tied behind the neck with a ſtring. Many wear only one band of linen round the head, the ends of which are decorated with open needle-work, and being tied be⯑hind, hang down more or leſs upon their backs. This dreſs is very much in vogue about the river Wolga. In the dreſs of the women of Mokſcha, the ſeveral latchets or ſtrings, which are faſten⯑ed to the cap, and hang down on each ſide of the boſom, are ornamented with an old Ruſſian ſilver coin, and on the boſom are joined, acroſs at their ends, by little chains and jingling toys. On the breaſt-pin, is faſtened a kind of ſhield, and which is rendered hea⯑vier, by the quantity of coral, and other clattering or⯑naments hung to it, than that of the Erſanes. About their neck they wear a collar formed of net-work, compoſed of many variegated glaſs-beads. From their [53] girdle hangs down before a large needle-worked apron, divided into four parts from top to bottom, each of which is pinned to the other, and ornamented at bottom, with long taſſels, glaſs-beads, and a cer⯑tain ſpecies of ſnail-ſhells, chiefly brought from India, the Cyprea nodoſa. Behind, inſtead of an apron, hangs down ſeveral black woollen taſſels, faſtened on ſtrings of various lengths. They uſed to ſtick ſhells and me⯑dals with pins upon the boſom and neck of their ſhifts, to encreaſe the noiſe. But the moſt peculiar part of the dreſs of the women of Mokſcha, are ſome large flying tufts of hair, formed by a ſhort ſtick within the lock, and leaving the hair looſe at the end; many of theſe ſhort tails are made and hang between other parts of the hair, which are braided into little treſſes. Theſe tufts are now out of faſhion, and only to be ſeen on old women, who are in fact aſhamed to ſhew them, and often will not wear them, if not induced to it by much flattery and perſwaſion. Neither do the women of Mokſcha, when dreſſed, bind up their feet with linen bands, but with leather latchets or thongs.

The people of Mokſcha, as I obſerved before, be⯑ing now all converted to chriſtianity, remember and retain but few of their former cuſtoms and opinions. They are ſaid to have differed little from the Erſanes. They have uniformly aſſured me, that they neither had idols nor ſubordinate deities, but always offered [54] up their ſacrifices to an inviſible Supreme Being, whom they did not call Paas, as do the Erſanes, but Schkai, or heaven itſelf, and to which they prayed, turning their faces to the eaſt. They had altars at diſtant pla⯑ces within the wood, in which they ſacrificed horſes, oxen, and ſmall cattle. At the burial of a deceaſed perſon, the parents were to perform a ſacrifice, and the mourners were women. They married their chil⯑dren, before they were grown-up, and frequently gave young women to boys, under a notion of encouraging female induſtry, and making the wife by her labour, maintain her huſband. Men were accuſtomed to give a portion to their daughters in marriage, which was returned them afterwards, in imitation of all other eaſtern nations. When the marriage ceremony took place, the bride, in the preſence of her own parents, and thoſe of her huſband, was ſet upon a mat and car⯑ried into the bridegrooms bed-chamber with theſe words, Wot tet Wergaſs Utſcha, that is, ‘Here, wolf, take the lamb,’ during which ceremony, ſhe was to ſhew no diſinclination or ſhame-facedneſs. At preſent, after the rites are performed in the Ruſſian church, and the bride is returned, ſhe is expected to lament her former ſituation exceedingly, and ſome indeed do it ſo ſincerely, as to tear their hair, and ſcratch their fa⯑ces moſt inhumanly. She alſo wears a linen veil of needle-work over her face. The day after the nupti⯑als, the elder of the parents goes in a ſolemn manner, with a loaf of bread, on which ſome little ornament, [55] to wear upon the boſom, is faſtened, to give the bride as a preſent, and this is done by ſetting it thrice upon her head, uttering theſe words, Zatei, meſei, pawei, in what order he pleaſes, but the word which he pro⯑nounces laſt, the bride is to be called by: and, they give their children an accidental and commonly an adjectival name. This is all I could learn from this ſimple people. They appeared to me to be induſtri⯑ous farmers, and to breed a great many bees. Some of them are owners of 200 hives, and they are much cleaner in their perſon, than their Erſanean brethren. Reddiſh and light coloured hair is leſs frequent among them, than among the Erſanes, whoſe hair is moſtly brown. Their women, like thoſe of the Erſanes, are in general not pretty, but they are active, diligent, and laborious. Their knowledge of herbs, for the uſe of phyſic and dying, is not ſmall. Round the porches of their houſes, you will conſtantly ſee ſome herb or other hanging up to dry, with a number of cole-wort leaves, which the Mordvines lay under the dough of their bread, to be baked with it, as they leaven it un⯑commonly ſtrong, and it is apt to run. On this ac⯑count, they dry a winter's proviſion of theſe leaves, wetting them a little when they uſe them. Among the the medicinal herbs I ſaw them make uſe of, were the St. John's-wort, (Hypericum, perforatum,) which they bind over the face in paralytic caſes; the Engliſh marjoram (Origanum,) which they dry, reduce to pow⯑der, and ſtrew over wounds and excoriations of chil⯑dren. [56] The Virgaurea, whoſe aſhes they ſtrew over in⯑flammations of the ſkin, called Eryſipelas. The bog⯑bean, (menyanthes,) and the aconite, (aconitum,) which they uſe as a poultice for external inflammations, and give internally as a remedy for watery ſwellings; the leaves of the raſberry-buſh, (Rubus Saxatilis.) The clover, (Triſolium Spadiceum,) and the common thyme, with water, in inflammations of the eyes, which they are often afflicted with, owing to their ſmoaking cot⯑tages; the marſh cinque-foil, (comarum paluſtre,) in caſes of difficult birth. Betonies, to bathe weak chil⯑dren in; the blue-bottle, (Centaurea lacea,) for a bath againſt the palſy in children; the ſtar-thiſtle, (Stellaria dichotoma,) the yellow holly, againſt the looſeneſs of belly in children; and, the pheaſant's-eye, (adonis ver⯑na,) in hyſterical diſorders, and ſeveral others.

The Mordvines do not make their butter in ovens as do the Ruſſians, but like the Finlanders and Tar⯑tars, by beating. Like the Ruſſians however they pot their freſh cheeſe, and pour butter on it, to keep it ſoft. They build their houſes either in the Ruſſian or Tartarean method, and lay on large, and pallet-beds, according as they live in the vicinage of either of theſe people. The old Mordvine houſes have their doors to the eaſt, as Stralenburg juſtly noticed, and their ovens ſtand on the ſouth-weſt corner; in other reſ⯑pects they are very narrow and inconvenient, and are for the moſt part, without chimneys.

[57]The face of this country, is open, hilly, and ſandy, with occaſionally thick foreſts; but the lands round the villages are in pretty good cultivation.

Wjaſera. In our way to Penſa, we paſſed through Wjaſera, about 16 miles ſhort of it. This town has three churches, one of which they have began to build with ſtone. Among the horſes that drew our coach, I took notice of a mare, whoſe hair was finer than common, and on enquiry, found there was a ſtallion in this neighbourhood, whoſe progeny was all like this mare. In winter, theſe horſes are ſaid to become woolly like ſheep.

Sept. 9. Penſa, about 70 miles from Inſara. On the 9th of September, at break of day, we reached Pen⯑ſa, about ſeventy miles diſtant from Inſara. This town, notwithſtanding it's buildings are but moderate, yields on account of it's ſituation, ſtanding on a height near the river Sura, and it's churches, a beautiful proſ⯑pect. Trade ſeems to be the principal turn of the inhabitants, and the ſhops are as well ſtored here, as in any town on this ſide Moſcow. This has been ef⯑fected by the eſtabliſhment of a colony, and it being a place where all travellers ſtop. The river Sura flows cloſe by the town, and receives the little river Penſa, which runs through one part of it, and ſupplies the market with great plenty of fiſh. They have all the [58] ſmaller kind, and the ſhad and ſalmon are caught only in the ſpring.

In the province of Penſa, are ſeveral diſtilleries of ſpirits from corn, belonging to the nobility, which ſhew the richneſs of this diſtrict. Some noblemen have here conſiderable ſtuds. An attempt was made to eſtabliſh a vitriol manufactory, though I do not know, whether the project has ſucceeded; but, the enormous quantity of pebbles found in this neighbourhood, which yield vi⯑triol, deſerves ſome attention, as they might be worked for the benefit of the ſtate.

But what is moſt worthy notice in the diſtrict of Penſa, is the cultivation of woad, which was begun about ten years ſince by one Tawlejef, a merchant, who has eſtabliſhed woad-manufacturies in the villages of Korſchiman and Staroi-matſchim. Having been told that the colour here prepared was not good for much in dying, as it loſt it's beauty and livelineſs in leſs than a year's time; I was induced to enquire into the reaſon of it. I went therefore to the neareſt, which was up⯑wards of forty miles from Penſa. The weather ſince the 25th of Auguſt had been very agreeable, but on the 9th of September, we had a great deal of thunder, ac⯑companied with ſtormy and heavy rains. During this weather, I went to Korſchiman on the 12th of Septem⯑ber, little ſuſpecting the next day to be the firſt day of winter, and we arrived there late at night.

[59] Sept. 12. Korſchiman. Korſchiman is inhabited by Mordvines, of the Erſane race. As the workmen had not done the leaſt work for the laſt nine months, owing, perhaps, to the abſence of the proprietor, I could only inſpect the place and the implements, and enquire in⯑to the manner in which they made it; and it appeared to me, that the buſineſs was not well managed, there not being one intelligent and expert man among all the per⯑ſons employed in it, and that it's failure was not owing to the materials. As large quantities of indigo and woad are uſed throughout Ruſſia, and it is a profitable article of Aſiatic commerce, it were to be wiſhed, that inſtead of purchaſing it of ſtrangers, they would take ſome pains to bring theſe manufactures to perfection. It would be a great acquiſition to the wealth of the empire. Though the works were here ſuſpended, I did not underſtand that the proprietor meant to aban⯑don his deſign, but to endeavour to carry it on again on better principles.

On our way back, the weather was not only rainy, but, towards night, winter began to ſalute us with a heavy ſnow: the ground was covered to the height of ſome inches, and the young wood, being ſtill covered with leaves, bent under it's weight. Young trees, if once bent down with ſnow, ſeldom riſe again; of courſe, an early, premature ſnow may do a great deal of damage. The thermometer ſtood from the 150th to the 155th deg. on the 14th of Sept. the cold diminiſhed ſome de⯑grees, [60] but at night it froze again, and the froſt was ſo conſiderable, that the mercury during the 15th, at night, pointed at 162 deg. and this part diminiſhed but little during the whole winter.

Sept. 15. This weather induced me to haſten my diſ⯑tant journey, and I left Penſa on the 15th, which was as ſoon as I could procure horſes.

Seliſka, 14 miles from Penſa. Beyond Penſa we tra⯑velled through the extenſive foreſt of Sura, which reach⯑ed to Seliſka, near 14 miles, where we were benighted. The Mordvines of this country keep a great many bee⯑hives, which they leave expoſed abroad and very little ſheltered from the rigours of the winter. They keep alſo a great deal of cattle, but their ſheep are not of the bet⯑ter ſort, their wool being ſeemingly interwoven with goat-hair. There being plenty of trees here which yield roſin, moſt of the country people are employed in mak⯑ing tar. It froze ſo much this night, that all the rivers were ſwoln with ice.

About ſixteen miles further on, at a place called Julok-Gorodiſtche, is the remains of an ancient Tarta⯑rian fortification. It ſtood upon a plain, erected in form of an irregular ſemicircle, of about 350 fathoms, hav⯑ing a ſtrong breaſt-work and a ditch. In the centre is a round pit, now ſunk, probably contrived to hold water for the cattle.

[61]We could not reach Simburſky before the 22d, it being almoſt impoſſible to travel by night, for the bad⯑neſs of the roads, even with additional horſes. The country however abounds with villages, moſtly inhabi⯑ted by the people of Mokſcha. The face of the coun⯑try is a great deal of high-land, covered with foreſts of pine, in which are many Linden-trees, very advan⯑tageous to bees. This tree is the moſt uſeful of any tree in Ruſſia. It's timber is good for a variety of pur⯑poſes, as is alſo it's bark, and it's baſt, of which they make mats and ropes. The leaves and tender ſlips of the Linden, when dryed, is alſo a good winter-pro⯑viſion for ſheep in theſe places, where they keep ſo many. The people were here ſurprized by the winter, and a great deal of hemp, and corn that was not cut, was buried and loſt beneath the ſnow. Thoſe fields alſo, which were ſown with winter-ſeeds, yielded but a diſmal proſpect for the enſuing year, for they were de⯑voured by a kind of catterpillar, (Phaloena frumenta⯑lis,) which in the provinces of Caſan, have for ſome years paſt been a univerſal land-plague; for they devoured the young plants as they roſe, to the very root, as if they had been fed by cattle. However, the wet weather and froſt had killed many of them; for, during the day, they hide themſelves in the ſurface of the earth. There is hardly a better expedient to get rid of theſe unwelcome devourers, than to ſtrew thoſe fields well, where they are ſeen, as ſoon as the ſeed riſes, with aſhes of buck-wheat or peas-haulm.

[62]About three miles ſhort of the city of Simburſky, is the line of partition, erected from the Sura to the Wolga, in the reign of the Czar Alexei Michailowitſch, which is a great bulwark and a deep ditch, more con⯑ſiderable than that which is thrown up from the weſt⯑ern part of the Sura. This line is ſtill in good condition, though all the places built near it have loſt their wood⯑en fortifications.

Sept. 22. Simburſky, about 170 miles from Sariſka. We had juſt reached Simburſky on the 22d, when a moſt violent ſtorm aroſe at night, from the north-weſt, which laſted till the 24th; we had then a few days fine weather, and I took the opportunity to ſee the environs of this city. This place ſtands on very high ground, between the rivers Wolga and Swijaga, and they are ſo near to each other, as barely to leave room for the city; though the latter runs a courſe of about 70 miles, before it empties itſelf into the Wolga. The hill on which Simburſky ſtands, is a grey clay, mixed with pyrites, and full of petrifactions. The hill gra⯑dually falls away on the Swijaga ſide, but on the Wol⯑ga the land is waſhed away, and leaves a very ſteep bank. In the river and it's banks are found, a vari⯑ety of petrifactions, and ſome very tranſparent cryſtals. And all the country, between theſe two rivers, is ſo full of vitriolic and ſulphureous ſubſtances, that if manu⯑factories of vitriol, brimſtone and allum were eſtabliſh⯑ed [63] near Caſan, they might be plentifully ſupplied with, materials.

Sept. 30. We croſſed the river Tſcheremſchan, at the diſtance of about 70 miles beyond Simburſky, on a floating bridge of rafts, common in Ruſſia, on ac⯑count of the ſtrong ſwelling rivers in that country. In this neighbourhood ſtands a village, called Bilgar, in which name, the memory of the ancient Bulgarian na⯑tion, ſeems to be preſerved.

The whole diſtrict of Tſcheremſchan conſiſts of an excellent black ſoil, with a ſufficiency of birch-wood, for firing; of courſe, it is well inhabited and cultiva⯑ted. The inhabitants here conſiſt of Tartars and Mordvines, but chiefly of the people of Tſhuwa, now converted to chriſtianity. However, I met with ſome villages, where the inhabitants ſtill adhere to their an⯑cient religion and cuſtoms.

As the language of this people reſembles much the Tartarian, ſo does the dreſs of their women. They wear coarſe, linen clothes, worked with the needle, in worſted, in a variety of colours, but moſtly blue, red and black, very much like thoſe of the Mordvines. They have alſo ornaments like theirs, large pins, and breaſt-ſhields, girdles and pendant taſſels; but the cap which they conſtantly wear, even in the houſe, is like that of the Tartarian women, thickly beſet with [64] old, ſilver coins or tin ſpangles, with necklaces of coral beads, tied behind with a large, needleworked band, that hangs down the back; to which is fixed, a number of medals, coins, and pieces of tin and fringe, which band is tucked into the girdle; beſides theſe, they wear alſo two ſmaller lappets, fringed at bottom, hanging from the head to the middle of the back, one on each ſide, and joined together by ſtrings of coral beads. This cap is not like that of the Tartarian women, coming down upon the forehead, or ſitting cloſe to the head, but widely extended; ſo, that both ends of that veil, which theſe women call Taſtar, and put round their neck, is croſſed under the chin, wound round the head under this cap, and paſſed through a hole in the top of it, where it reſembles a tuft; but they have alſo caps without holes at top; theſe are worn by girls. When they are full-dreſſed, the veils they wear are of fine linen, embelliſhed with glaſs-beads, and pendant corals. The girls' dreſs is leſs ornamental, not wear⯑ing the above-mentioned veil; nor has their cap any flap or train behind, but is commonly compoſed of va⯑rious colours. Theſe braid their hair, into two or three treſſes, and conceal it under their upper ſhift, In winter, both women and girls wear a kind of man's great coat, made of fur, over their dreſs. The mans' dreſs is not very different from that of the Ruſſian peaſant, except, that his ſhirt, about the neck, is work⯑ed with worſted.

[65]The features of the people of Tſchuwa, betray a ſtrong mixture of Tartarian blood. Their hair is neither light-brown nor reddiſh, but commonly black, like that of the Tartars. The features of the women are pretty enough, and they are much more cleanly than the Mordvines. I may ſay the ſame of their ha⯑bitations, which, in many reſpects, reſemble thoſe of the Tartars. Their villages are not generally ſurrounded with pales, but conſiſt of diſperſed dwellings and ſome ſmall huts, on eminences, where they ſtore their pro⯑viſions. According to the old cuſtom, the door is on the eaſt-ſide of the building, which is covered with a large roof, under which, they ſleep in ſummer-time. Within the room is a large bench to ſleep on, and an oven ſtanding on the right-hand near the door, fre⯑quently without a chimney. In imitation of the Tar⯑tars, the better kind of people ſleep on good feather⯑beds, but the poor are contented with ruſh-mats.

'The Tſchouvaſches, or people of Tſchuwa,' ſays Tooke, ‘make regular meals, placing themſelves round a table, for that purpoſe. Before they eat, they ſay Thore bar. Youra! that is, O God give us bread! and after meals, Thora Syrlak! O Lord caſt me not away! They cram their gueſts as much as poſſible, preſent pieces of meat to them on ſpoons, ſolicit them to eat, till they can eat no longer, and conſi⯑der this as a mark of politeneſs. Like the Tartars, [66] they ſleep on broad benches, but the better kind of people ſleep on feather-beds.’

‘When a young among them is inclined to marry, he commiſſions a friend to bargain with a girl, who always gets her as cheap as he can. The price ge⯑nerally paid on theſe occaſions, is from twenty to fifty rubles, each ruble about 4s. Engliſh; but a good chapman will get one for eight, ten, and ſome⯑times for five rubles. The rich will go as far as eighty, and this purchaſe-money is called Golon oſki. The brides' portion is paid in cattle, furniture and clothes, and is in proportion to the money paid for her.’

‘After theſe preliminaries, follows a ceremony, called Koſthenas kayas, that is, the carrying of the preſents. The bridegroom and his parents viſit the betrothed bride, pay the purchaſe-money, and make her friends ſeveral ſorts of preſents, as ſhirts, cloaths, linen, &c. The girls father on this occaſion, makes an offering to the ſun, of a loaf of wheaten bread and ſome honey, accompanied with a prayer for a happy marriage, and proſperity to the young couple; after this, they ſit down, eat and drink, and appoint the wedding-day.’

‘The nuptials are thus celebrated. The bride, covered with a veil, hides herſelf behind a ſcreen; [67] from which, after ſome time, ſhe goes and walks round the eating-room, with an air of ſolemnity. Some young girls then bring her beer, bread and honey, and when ſhe has walked round the room three times, the bridegroom enters, ſnatches off her veil, kiſſes her, and changes rings with her. From this time ſhe is called Schouraſnegher, or betrothed maiden, and entertains her company with food. She then returns behind the ſcreen, and the married wo⯑men put on her head the matron cap, which is more adorned than any ſhe wore before.’

‘In the evening, when the bride and bridegroom are to undreſs, the lady pulls off her huſband's boots; and the next morning, the friends ſearch for the Moſaical proofs of her virginity, which if not found, a boy who ſerves, as a ſort of a paranymph, preſents a mug of beer to one of the principal aſſiſtants. In the bottom of this mug is a hole, which the lad ſtops with his finger, but takes it away, when the perſon has the mug at his mouth, and the beer thus runs down his beard and boſom. This makes the com⯑pany laugh, and the bride bluſh. After this, no further notice is taken of her miſconduct. The next day, the bride regales her friends, and they divert themſelves with dancing. Even thoſe who have em⯑braced the chriſtian faith, omit not this ceremony. The wedding is often held at the houſe of the bride⯑groom's father, and is a ſort of club-dinner, each [68] gueſt bringing ſome eatable with him. Before the meal, a loaf is handed about with a hole in it, into which, ſuch of the company as find themſelves ſo inclined, put in a little ſmall money, as a preſent.’

‘At the birth of a child, the friends of the parents come to congratulate them, and the firſt comers name the infant, and give it preſents, by ſlipping ſmall pieces of coin into the mug they drink out of. This ceremony is called Piatſchir ghivas, or cradling the child.’

‘Among the Tſchouwaſches, the huſband is maſter of the houſe, orders every thing, and his wife impli⯑citly obeys him; of courſe, domeſtic quarrels are ſeldom heard of.’

‘At their funerals, as ſoon as the grave is filled up, they place lighted torches near it, a cake, and a piece of roaſted hen, ſaying to the dead, Amenſcha palder, or, That is for thee. The perſons preſent devour the reſt, and conceive they have eaten with the dead; then, having caſt the old cloaths of the deceaſed up⯑on his grave, they go and bathe themſelves, and re⯑turn to the houſe of their departed friend and feaſt.’

Such of the people of Tſchuwa, as are not yet con⯑verted to the chriſtian faith, keep the Friday holy, as do the Mahometans, which they call Aernekon, but [69] don't pay the leaſt regard to the Sunday. This, and alſo the abhorrence of ſwine's fleſh, (which ſome few indeed will now eat,) is a cuſtom they derive from the Tartars, though they adhere to no other part of their religion. In theſe villages, where they live agreeable to their ancient cuſtoms, the Sotnik ^* goes about on Thurſday evening, to announce the feſtivity of the following day. On which, no one preſumes to work, every one ſpends the day in prayer and amuſements; after which, each family, but eſpecially the female part of it, who are not admitted to be preſent at ſolemn ſacrifices, have ſaid their prayers before a certain ſanc⯑tuary, which they call Yerig. This Yerig, is nothing but a bundle of fifteen rods of the wild roſe-tree, about four feet long, tyed together in the middle with baſt, from which hangs a bit of tin. Each houſe has ſuch a ſanctuary, which is kept in a clean cloſet, built in the beſt part of the houſe. No one is to touch it till the fall of the leaf, when they devoutly throw it into ſome flowing water.

‘On the Thurſday in Paſſion week, every father of a family, ſays Tooke, places certain eatables in the yard of his houſe, with a lighted torch near them, to the me⯑mory of each perſon who died in his houſe, and the [70] dogs, as proxies for the dead, feaſt on this proviſion. Even thoſe who are converts to chriſtianity conceive, that the dead cannot reſt in their graves without this ceremony.’

‘The prieſts of Tſchuwa, are called Youma, and ſerve in the triple capacity of prieſts, fortune-tellers and magicians. They call their ſupreme being Thor, and give him a wife, whom they call Thor Amyſch, or mother of the gods. They have alſo a ſubordinate divinity. Schaïtan, is the chief of their malevolent gods, and has his reſidence in the water, and in their prayers, they never omit to beſeech Thor, that he will vanquiſh Schaïtan.’

‘Their notion of future exiſtence extends to a bliſs⯑ful and miſerable immortality. Good people they ſay, are tranſplanted, after death, to a bleſſed abode, called Tſchemherda, or the land of perfect ſatisfac⯑tion, where they meet their families, and enjoy their property much more than before. The wicked, they think, will be condemned to wander, after death, as ſkeletons, deprived of fleſh, in cold and barren de⯑ſarts, ſhivering, wretched, and forlorn.’

‘At ſeed-time, they have a feaſt for petitioning the gods to give them a fruitful harveſt, and after har⯑veſt they have another thankſgiving, at both of which they ſacrifice victims, and make oblations of [71] cakes and milk. Their prayers are always the ſame, and to this effect. O God have mercy upon me! O God forſake me not; give me many ſons and daughters. O God, give me a great quantity of ſheaves of corn, and fill my barns with proviſion! O God, give me bread and honey and drink and victuals and health, with tran⯑quility and reſt! O God, fill my yard with horſes, horned cattle, ſheep and goats! O God, bleſs my houſe, that I may lodge and entertain and warm the traveller! O God, give thy bleſſing to the miſtreſs of the earth! For ſo they call the Empreſs, and at the end of every period of this prayer, all the aſſembly ſay, Amin!’

In the neighbourhood of their villages, generally upon ſome common near a river, they have a ſacred place, called Keremet. This Keremet is a ſquare piece of ground, ſurrounded with a hedge about ſix feet high, and has three entrances; one in the middle of the eaſtern ſide, another on the north, and the third on the weſt. The ſituation of the place is ſo contrived, that the northern ſide leads to the ſpring or river, as through this gate all the water uſed in the ſacrifice is fetched. The people enter by the weſtern gate, and near the eaſtern is raiſed a roof or ſhed, under which the ſacrificial fleſh is dreſſed. Before this ſhed, is a large table fixed, by faſtening boards upon ſtakes, on which the meat, &c. is laid. Near the northern gate, [72] is another large table, whereon they ſkin and clean the victims.

Large villages have a great Keremet for public ſa⯑crifices, and a ſmaller one for private families, who ſometimes have a Keremet within their houſes.

The people of Tſchuwa, thoſe in the diſtrict of the river Alatyr, erect in the middle of the Keremet a little, wooden houſe, whoſe door is towards the eaſt, in which they eat the ſacrifice ſtanding; for this purpoſe, they have long tables, covered with cloths. In the centre of this houſe is erected a high, wooden pole, which paſſes through the roof, and has on it's top, an iron ring, flat at bottom and ſharp at top. But to this pole is no honour paid, nor do they have one in open Ke⯑remets.

In the month of September, when their harveſt is houſed, and they are ready to ſow the winter-ſeed, the public ſacrifices take place again. At theſe times they offer up a horſe, an ox, and a ſheep. I never was for⯑tunate enough to be preſent at one of theſe great feſti⯑vals, but I have been told, that they lead the victims through the eaſtern gate, and tie them, one after the other, to three ſtakes near the place where the fleſh is to be dreſſed, untill they have ſaid their prayers. This act of devotion is performed towards the eaſt, with great bowing of all the men. Their common form [73] of prayer is Thor ſirlaga, Thor biter, Bojant ſchin bul, that is, "God, have mercy; God, give us food and preſerve us." But they invoke ſubordinate deities, for whom they have particular prayers. The ſimple folks of Tſchuwa, could not give me any idea of their mythology, but the following are ſome of the names of their inferior deities, which I learned. Keremet is the firſt, after their ſupreme being. Beſides theſe, they have Aſtyr, Kſnir, Pulchs, Surodon, Sir, Sjulſuren-Irſene, Chilſir, Kebe, and perhaps many more, of which pro⯑bably it would be tireſome to enumerate the particu⯑lars, or their propriety. It is remarkable, that they give many of their gods a wife and a ſon, and call upon each of them three times; as for example, Thor or Keremet-aſh, (the father,) Kermet-amyche, the mo⯑ther,) and Keremet-Uewli, (the ſon,) and ſo on. I heard this from a ſimple peaſant of Tſchuwa, who was unable to give me any further account. When pray⯑ers are over, the victims are immolated by one of the elders, choſen, by the voice of the people, to this of⯑fice. They carefully preſerve the blood, and proceed as is related, in the Collections of Ruſſian Hiſtory.

The ſkins of the horſe and ox, are hung upon two high poles, in the northern corner of the Keremet; but, the ſheep's ſkin is hung over a rail, fixed on ſtakes, ſtuck in the ground. After hanging two days, they are ſold among them, but the price is to defray the expences of the ſacrificial veſſels, or elſe laid out [74] in honey and flour to be made uſe of, at future feſ⯑tivals. The care of this, and to keep the ſacred place clean, is entruſted to a man of their own chooſ⯑ing, who conſiders the office as an honourable em⯑ployment, and is called Keremet Pchagann. Such ſa⯑crifices are alſo performed, when there is a proſpect of a bad harveſt, before the corn is cut.

Private family ſacrifices are performed on many oc⯑caſions, as in caſes of ſickneſs, domeſtic diſtreſs, child-birth, and in memory of the deceaſed. The father of the family, or the eldeſt of the relations, having ſaid prayers, kills the victim, which is chiefly ſome ſmall animal, but generally a ſheep. Before it is ſlain, they throw over it a veſſel full of cold water, as they do indeed at public ſacrifices. If the animal ſhakes it off, they proceed; if not, the ceremony is poſtponed to ſome other time. After they have eaten the fleſh, and whatever is eatable of the victim, they burn the bones, and commit the remainder carefully to the bo⯑ſom of the earth, that no ſacrificial relick may be profaned.

The people of Tſchuwa, bury their dead full-dreſſ⯑ed, but in a ſhabby coffin, with the head turned to⯑wards the weſt. They are alſo ſaid to put into the grave, if the deceaſed is a man, ſeveral ſmall tools, a form whereon they work, their ſhoes made of twiſted baſt, (Lapti,) the inſtrument with which they are [75] made, a knife, ſome baſt, and a ſteel to ſtrike fire, as they do in Lapland. The common burial-ground lies at an equal diſtance from the village, the Keremet and the high-road, is called Maſar; and the funeral ob⯑ſequies are performed at three different times, by the relations and friends of the deceaſed; on the three following days, viz. the Wedneſday in Paſſion-week, the Thurſday before Whitſuntide, on which day, the Ruſſians have a ſimilar ceremony, and on the 8th day of November. On this latter day, they not only per⯑form a ſacrifice on the grave, but erect a wooden pillar at the head of the grave. Having dug a hole for this pillar, before they fix it in the ground, each perſon preſent throws a bit of meat and ſome of the drink prepared for the funeral, into it; they then eat the ſacrifice, drink, entertain, and amuſe themſelves in a variety of ways.

The collections of Ruſſian hiſtory mentioned above, give a full account of the marriages of the people of Tſchuwa. The marriage portion paid with the bride, is to the amount of from 50 to 100 rubles, (each ru⯑ble 4s. 6d. Engliſh.) The bride is not ſuffered to walk on the day of marriage, but is to ride, or be car⯑ried. Divorces ſometimes take place, and the cuſtom is, for the huſband of the woman he leaves, to rent her veil in two pieces, one of which he keeps to himſelf, and gives the other to his wife.

[76]As they apply themſelves much to breeding of bees, they make a great deal of mead; and, they alſo have ſtrong beer, with hops, for their feaſts, but drink no whey, which the Tartars are ſo fond of. Their dan⯑ces are like thoſe of the Mordvines, ſimilar to thoſe of the Tartars, and conſiſt of ſeveral motions of the arms and body, turning round with ſhort ſteps, their feet cloſe together, beating and keeping very good time. The muſical inſtruments uſed on theſe occa⯑ſions are a bag pipe, a kind of little fiddle with three ſtrings, and a dulcimer, in form of a creſcent, with about ſixteen or eighteen ſtrings.

Their manner of taking an oath deſerves alſo our notice, and is as follows. He who is to ſwear, is brought to the Keremet, and there, in the manner of eating the Corſned, deſcribed in Engliſh hiſtory, eats a cake of flour boiled in water and butter, imprecating curſes on his head, and that what he eats may choke him, if he utters any thing but the truth.^* To try a man ſuſpected of having taken a falſe oath, they give him ſalt water to drink, and if he coughs, he is declared guilty. I will only mention one thing more, which is, that the people of Tſchuwa, who inhabit the heaths and mountainous part of the country, on the left ſhore of the Wolga, take the by-name of Werejal, but call themſelves Chirdijal.

[77] Betkulowa, about 100 miles from Simburſky. The higheſt mountains of this country, are near the Tarta⯑rian village Betkulowa, about 100 miles diſtant from Simburſky, and along the banks of the little river Scheſchma. Theſe mountains conſiſt of a grey and white ſand-ſtone, in which, is, here and there, ſome copper ore of ſmall allay. We rode 17 miles acroſs theſe moun⯑tains, and reached on the 3d of October, through an unbeaten way, in a wet and wild foreſt, the Tartarian village Kurmuſchli. Sconce-Kitſchuiſkoi was a fort formerly belonging to the line of Sokam, which al⯑moſt extended itſelf to the river Ik, but is now, like all other ſorts in this diſtrict, become an open ſpot. Here is a poſt-ſtage on the great road, from Oren⯑burg to Caſan. Here is alſo a copper manufactory, but, for want of hands to procure a ſufficient quantity of ore and coals, is not always worked. The ore is dug in this neighbourhood, and out of 100lb. is pro⯑duced 2lb. of pure copper.

We had juſt left this copper-manufactory, when it began to rain violently, which continued the whole day. This was followed by ſo great a ſtorm, ſo much ſnow, and ſo dark a night, that it was with difficulty we could reach the Tartarian village Scharepkina, a diſtance only of eight miles. It froze hard the next day, and enabled us to get faſter on, ſo that we reach⯑ed Buhulminſkaja, about thirty-ſeven miles the ſame night.

[78] Buhulminſkaja. This town is tolerably well built, has about 500 houſes, and two wooden churches, with a public office and court-houſe, belonging to the re⯑gency of Orenburg. On the 5th, we reached Selo⯑ſpaſkoje, the uſual reſidence of the counſellor of ſtate Rytſchkof, a gentleman celebrated for his writings, and reſpected for his perſonal merits, where after a moſt kind reception, and amid the moſt ſocial and in⯑ſtructive converſation, I imperceptibly delayed my journey, until the 14th.

This village is prettily ſituated upon an eminence, ſurrounded with woody heights above. The little ri⯑vers that flow between the mountains, abound with trout and a delicate kind of ſmall ſalmon. (Salmo lacuſtris,) not uncommon in the Uralian rivers, and is called Kutema. As theſe mountain-waters, on account of their rapidity, ſeldom freeze, their banks are crowd⯑ed with a kind of water-bird, rarely to be met with in any other country, than Ruſſia and Siberia; it is a ſort of ſtarling, (Sturnus Cinclus.) What I am going to relate is a fact, and I was an eye-witneſs of the truth. Theſe birds, called in Ruſſia water-ſtarlings, dip or dive to the bottom of the water, in ſearch of inſects and worms, without wetting their plumage. If they are ſhot on the icy banks of rivers and not killed outright, they will plunge themſelves into the water, and don't riſe again till they are dead. The bird, however, cannot be ſaid to ſwim, not having [79] the requiſite organs for that purpoſe; but, properly ſpeaking, it flies beneath the water, and clings to the ground, till it has got it's prey. The ſuperſtitious countryman fancies, that if any part of the body is anointed with the fat of this bird, it will be for ever free from any injury from froſt. Some aſcribe this virtue alſo to it's blood. There are alſo in the woods, where the water does not freeze in winter, a kind of otter, Muſtela lutreola,) very little known, except in Ruſſia, called in the Ruſſian fur-trade Norka. It likes to feed upon frogs and little crabs; but, in other reſ⯑pects, does not differ much in his way of living from the common fiſh-otter.

On the borders of the river Sok, which I reached on the 12th of October, the country is delightfully pleaſant, the lands fertile and rich. This is the weſt⯑ern part of Ruſſia, where a number of roebucks are, about the cloſe of winter, caught in ſnares, by the peo⯑ple of Tartary and Tſchuwa, who are fond of hunt⯑ing in ſnow-ſhoes, and can eaſily overtake them, as the deer are hampered in the ſnow, and cannot well get on. They are a peculiar kind of animal, very dif⯑ferent from all the ſpecies of European ſtags, except as to colour and horns, on which there are many warts. They are of the ſize of the fallow-deer, and what is moſt remarkable, have no tail, inſtead of which, the hinder part of their breech is covered with a little ſkinny wart. Their quarters behind are white, and I [80] am therefore led to ſuppoſe it to be the Pygargus of the ancients. The Ruſſians call it ſimply Dikaja Koſa, the wild ſhe-goat, and the Tartars give it the name of Saiga. In theſe vaſt uncultivated waſtes are alſo a number of elks and foxes; and ſome of the latter, are ten of a blackiſh colour.

This diſtrict, as are all the mountainous heaths along the rivers Sok and Kinel, is ſome of the beſt ſheep paſture in all Ruſſia; for the common Ruſſian ſheep are larger here, than uſual.

The Tartarian village Uſmanowa, or Nadyr-aul, as it has been called from ſome principal perſon who died a few years ſince, and who intended, under a ſpe⯑cial order and direction from the ſuperior office of mines, in the province of Orenburg, dated at Ufa, in 1756, to gather the Aſphaltos found here, in order to draw an oil from it. For this purpoſe, he had begun to erect a manufactory at the ſource of the brook Ka⯑muſchli, to which was to be added another, upon the river Surgut. But all theſe preparations were inter⯑rupted and ſubverted, by the unexpected death of this Tartar.

A mile or two ſouth-eaſt of Semenowo, ſituated not far from the ſource of the river Sok, is an Aſphaltos ſpring, on the ſteep declivity of a mountain, over⯑grown with birch-trees, whoſe ſoil is a fat and black [81] earth. This ſpring has been cleaned, and forms on the mountain, a reſervoir, about three feet wide, and three feet deep, which is not only conſtantly full of water without any agitation, but flows over and forms a brook. The water in this reſervoir never free⯑zes, even in the moſt rigorous winter; and, though ſometimes covered with ſnow, the bituminous vapours, which may be ſmelt from far, will ſoon make an opening through it, though the water poſſeſſes no extraordinary degree of warmth. It was morning, when I was there, and the thermometer, when in the water, was 138 deg. when in the air, it ſtood at 160 degrees. In this well, the ſurface of the water is co⯑vered with a black and very tough aſphaltos, which has the colour and conſiſtency of thick tar, and as of⯑ten as it is taken off, will gather again in a few days. It had been ſcummed clean about a fortnight back, and yet, I took from the ſurface, more than ſix pounds in weight, and a great deal adhered to the ſides: it lay on the water half an inch thick. When the aſphaltos is removed, a fine and ſtrong oil remains, which might be fired, and would burn as it lies. Even the wa⯑ter itſelf has ſome inflamable parts in it, and makes a ſolution of litmus read. The people in the neighbour⯑hood, uſe this bituminous water to gargle their throats, and drink, in the apthae and other infectious and ul⯑cerous complaints of the mouth and throat. They gather the aſphaltos, and uſe it as a family-medicine. As a ſalve, it will cure recent wounds immediately; [82] by the addition of butter, as an ointment, it heals all ſorts of tumours and ulcers; but, their internal uſe of it is moſt extraordinary. They take a middling ſpoonful boiled in milk, which renders it thick, drink⯑ing it warm in violent cholics, inward ſtrains, and hid⯑den maladies. It makes the patient almoſt giddy, throws him into a ſweat, and is a powerful diuretic, the urine ſmelling ſtrongly of it. It is ſaid alſo, that the peaſants uſe it as coomb to greaſe their cart-wheels; but, the chief uſe, is a medicinal one. Ano⯑ther property which the aſphaltos has, tough as it is, it is of ſo very penetrating a power, that though I kept it in a cold place, it made it's way through a wooden box, and in a few weeks, eat into a plank ſome inches thick. It might be uſed to preſerve wood from cor⯑ruption, to pay the bottoms of ſhips, and to keep them from the worms.

Along the ſtream of the Sok, the mountains conſiſt of a milk-white lime-ſtone.

Nikuſchkina, about 40 miles from Semenowo. In the neighbourhood of Nikuſchkina, about 40 miles from Semenowo, are ſome ſprings, which depoſe a ſulphu⯑reous matter. The people of Tſchuwa, and the reſt of the inhabitants, uſe theſe ſulphurous waters as a hot-bath againſt the itch, and other diſtempers of the ſkin. It is certain, that the external and internal uſe of them would be extremely efficacious, in all cuta⯑neous [83] diſorders, and taken internally, might cure many chronical ones.

About ten miles from this, is a remarkable ſulphur lake, the moſt conſiderable in all this diſtrict. I rode to it by break of day, and found it ſituated deep be⯑tween two high mountains. It is an oblong baſon, over-grown with birches, about 140 yards in length and 113 in breadth. It's aſpect is frightful and it's ſtench, which may be compared to the ſmell of addled eggs and brimſtone, is to be ſmelt at the diſtance of three miles; of courſe, it muſt be very diſagreeable to be near it. It has no perceptible motion and never freezes, and though the weather was cold when I was there, I found it 30 deg. warmer than the air. Hence it is, that a viſible thick vapour riſes from it. The water is ſo tranſparent, that one might diſcern it's depth, for it is not many feet to the bottom, was it not for the black and greaſy ground about it; as it is, it looks like a dreadful gulph. At the time when the ſulphur-ma⯑nufacturers were here, attempts were made to diſcover the origin of the ſulphur in this lake, but in vain; ſo that it muſt be hidden in the bowels of this chalk moun⯑tain.

From the top of this mountain, iſſues a ſulphur ſpring, which runs down into this lake, and depoſes a ſediment, reſembling a pure white and thick pulp, and looks as it runs, like thin curds.

[84]It is the continuation of this ſtream from the lake, that forms the remarkable river called the White-water river, which emptys itſelf into the Surgut. This river, as it proceeds from the lake, is about ſix feet deep, and it's breadth between 14 and 28 feet. In this channel the water has the appearance of thin curds, but in places where it flows flower, than near the lake, the ſurface has a fine ſcum, like that ſeen upon limy waters, and further diſtant from, the lake, it's banks, when I was there, were icy; the ice, however, was not ſolid, but conſiſted of a number of flakes upon one-another, like the ice that is found in freſh milk.

All the matter which the water depoſes, is but a ſul⯑phur mixed with limy particles. The whole ſtream was formerly banked with planks, for the uſe of the ſulphur manufactory, erected upon the river Sok, that they might collect the ſulphur with more eaſe; but there is now no traces of ſuch bank left. The manufactories are removed to the Wolga, and this White-water river is neglected.

Where the earth has been dug out to bank up the river Surgat, a thick, black layer of ſalt-petre earth is ſeen, and a kind of duſt, ſimilar to cinders; among which, lie many lime-ſtones full of holes, burnt out. This appearance leads me to ſtart a conjecture, which I will leave to the judgment of my readers, whether there may not have been, formerly, ſome vulcanic fires [85] in theſe mountains; perhaps, ſome bituminous and ſulphureous layers which ran through them are burnt out, and has ſublimated the ſulphureous parts into the cliffs of the oppoſite lime-mountains, now proportio⯑nably waſhed out by the penetration of ſprings. But this is all conjecture.

The cattle ſeem occaſionally to have recourſe to theſe ſprings, as conducive to their health; but, as they taint the water of the adjoining rivers, no fiſh will live in them.

Stawropal. It was now the 16th of October, and as the winter approached faſt, and the weather grew bad, I thought it beſt to return to Simburſky, and continue there till the ſpring. I went back therefore, by the way of Stawropal, where I arrived on the 17th. The ſnow was very deep, it having ſnowed for two or three days. We met here with thoſe Kalmucks which are become chriſtians, and inhabit the greateſt part of the province of Stawropal, wandering with their flocks of ſheep to thoſe winter-quarters allotted them, where in ſummer is made or procured, a winter's proviſion of hay, and where they live in their ſtrange way, equally in winter as in ſummer, in cots made of felts. They are ſaid to have begun cultivating a great deal of land, but I perſwade myſelf, that cultivation is only to ſupply their neceſſary wants; for it is not natural to ſuppoſe, that a nation, accuſtomed to the freedom and indolence of [86] a ſhepherd-life, would change the ſweets of ſuch a ſtate, for the troubleſome and painful condition of a toilſome one. In Stawropal, reſide their chiefs, who compoſe their council of war, and many officers; theſe go by particular names, expreſſive of their military rank, as Chorunſha, Jeſſaul, &c. that is, cornet, adju⯑tant, and ſo on, and are all well paid; they have here a Protopop, or chief-prieſt, ſubordinate to whom are many Pops or prieſts, choſen by the villages, and alſo a phyſician. Perſons of the firſt rank among them reſide in the town; but the Kalmucks, who are fur⯑merchants and ſhepherds, live either in town or coun⯑try as it ſuits them, or even in their felt-huts; though few endeavour to acquire more the advantages of a polite life than thoſe vagrants, in the ſtep or waſte of Wolga. The number of converted Kalmucks is ſaid now to be encreaſed to 14,000; among which, there are a thouſand tents of Sjungors, who profeſſed chriſtianity immedi⯑ately on the arrival of Sjungordan Uluſs, the miſſio⯑nary from the eaſtern ſtep. The ſheep which they breed, and wherein conſiſt their chief riches, are moſtly of the broad-tailed ſort; but, they produce no good wool; even the Ruſſian ſheep that are mixed with them, degenerate, and have a hairy wool like the Kal⯑muck; nay, the firſt lambs got by Kalmuck rams, have their tails either half, or wholly bolſtered up with fat. Now, as this nation will hardly ever apply themſelves to agriculture, the beſt way, in my opinion, to make them uſeful to the ſtate, would be, inſtead of their [87] preſent flocks, which are fit for nothing but ſlaughter, to give them ſheep of a better breed, and teach this ſhepherd-people the method of ſhearing, eſpecially in thoſe places, where there is the beſt ſheep feed.

The city of Stawropal, is agreeably ſituated on the high, eaſtern bank of one of the arms of the Wolga, which they call Kunei-Woloſchka. On the land ſide, it is ſurrounded with delightful hills, over-grown with pines and birch-trees. On the oppoſite ſide of the Wolga, we ſee at a diſtance the lofty lime-mountains, called Shigulefſki, from the village Shigulicha, that lies between them. The middle part of the town re⯑preſents a fort, conſiſting of ſome palliſadoes, towers, and a battery. It contains two churches, one built with wood, but the mother-church is handſomely erected with ſtone. Beſides the manſions of the Woi⯑wod or governor, there is a court-houſe or chancery belonging to the regency of Orenburg, the dwellings of the chiefs of the Kalmucks, and other military perſons; ſome proviſion, and ſalt magazines, a num⯑ber of ſhops, and a ſchool. Above the ſort are ſeve⯑ral ſtreets, wherein live the ſoldiers of the garriſon, and the coſſacks, in which place there is a chapel. The number of houſes amount to about 450.

October 19. On the 19th of October, I left Staw⯑ropal, in order to reach Simburſky, before the rapid ice-flood came on, which the river Wolga ſeemed to [88] threaten us with. The firſt village we paſſed in our way there, was Santſchalewoi, at the diſtance of about thirteen miles. This place is inhabited by divers ſorts of people, comprehended under the general denomi⯑nation of Kyſilbaſhes, and ſome of the people of Mok⯑ſcha. It appears, that ſince the building of the Mord⯑vine villages, the deſcendants of the people of Erſania, and thoſe of Mokſcha are mixed, and that their lan⯑guage is reduced into one. For example, the Mord⯑vines who inhabit the environs of the Wolga, don't call their ſupreme being Paas, as do the Erſanes, nor Skai, like the people of Mokſcha, but uſe the com⯑pound word Skipas. Beſides this, they have adopted a great many of the Tſchuwaſch, and are the cleanlieſt of all the Mordvines. They clean their tables, forms and walls, with a kind of bruſh, which they call Ili, but the Tartars, who uſe the ſame inſtrument, give it the name of Schlan. Their women wear nothing but a piece of linen tied round their heads, both ends of which are elegantly ſtitched, and hang down on the neck behind. I ſaw ſome, whoſe hair, by the addition of black ſheep-wool, was braided into a flat tail of two hands in breadth, or in treſſes, which reached down to the middle of their legs, and ſeems to have been the old Erſane ornament. Some, inſtead of the uſual apron worn behind, wear a great many black ſtrings, hanging down from the girdle.

[89]Almoſt all the villages on this road, are inhabited by Ruſſians. Near Nikolſkoe, ſouth of the river Tſcheremſchan, are the remains of a ſtrong, Tartarian breaſt-work; and, a little behind Nikolſkoe, we croſs an old Ruſſian line or barrier, which muſt be older than that of Sakamia, becauſe it is within the latter. This line begins at Beloi-jar, upon the Wolga, and goes to the borough of Eryklinſk, which formerly was fortified, and lies at nine miles diſtance; from whence it is ſaid to extend itſelf over Tynſk and Biljar, to the river Ik, like the Sakamian line. The ditch of this line, is in ſome places twenty-ſeven feet wide. Even in the village Nikolſkoe, are ſeveral heaps of rubbiſh, probably the remains of ſome redoubts.

I made the beſt of my way to Simburſky, (ſending my baggage-waggon on before,) as the heavy froſt and the badneſs of the roads would admit, and reached the ſlobode or ſuburbs, oppoſite that city, on the 20th of October, but owing to a north-weſt wind, and the abundance of ice collected on the ſhore, I could not croſs the river till the next day, when by the help of a boat, and walking on the ice, I was able to do it. The froſt here had been ſo ſevere, that the Wolga, near a mile broad, was almoſt frozen over. This ri⯑ver is moſt commonly ſhut up with ice in the firſt week of December, and often much earlier.

[90]This winter I found, was one of the moſt conſtant and uninterrupted froſts, the people had ever remem⯑bered. The ſnow fell but little, and a very remarka⯑ble northern-light, which was obſerved on the 24th of November, was the beginning of a violent froſt, which raiſed the mercury in the thermometer, about the mid⯑dle of December, to 190 degrees. The moſt com⯑mon and violent winds which blow always in the win⯑ter on the river Wolga, ſeem to come from the ſouth-weſt. As theſe very winds are the moſt miſchievous to the vines and fruits of theſe parts, was the culture of vines to be extended and even to flouriſh here, it muſt be on ſuch ſpots and hills only, as are ſheltered.

About fourteen miles above Simburſky, on the right ſhore of the Wolga, are the remains of a fortreſs, ſup⯑ported by a ditch. It is ſaid to have been erected by the celebrated old depredator Jeraſim. In this neigh⯑bourhood coals are found, of ſo bituminous a quality, that they will kindle with the flame of a candle. In burning, they have an agreeable ſmell, ſimilar to gum-anime in it's ſmoke, and conſume to a grey irony aſh. Theſe coals are not dug out of the earth, but are a kind of bituminous layer, that floats upon the river Wolga; though it is probable, if ſhafts were dug deep enough, the ſame kind of coal would be found in the earth; and I am of opinion, it would anſwer the expence, as the conveyance by the Wolga [91] would be trifling, and it might be conveyed to the re⯑moteſt parts of the empire.

It would have been unpardonable, had I omitted to viſit the celebrated remains of the Bulgarian capital Brjachimof, now called Bolgari, lying about eighty miles diſtant from Simburſky up the Wolga, and upon it's left and low ſhore; no deſcription having been given of the old, remarkable buildings, ſtill ſtanding there.

December 14. On the 14th of December, I went to this place, the celebrity of which ſeems to have been encreaſed, by it's having been honoured with a viſit from Peter the Great, and the preſent Empreſs: but, not being able to go the neareſt way, on account of the ice, with which the Wolga threatened my paſſage, I was obliged to go over the mountainous parts, which are covered with wood, and abound with ſmall game.

We croſſed the river Wolga at Tetjuſchi, a little market-town, lying upon the high-road, about ſeventy-two miles from Simburſky. The river here not being ſo wide, the ice was croſſed in waggons. From this paſſage to the village Bolgari, which is built upon the ruins of the ancient city, and lies towards the north-eaſt, they reckon fourteen miles. The road leads partly over ſome low-lands, which the Wolga occa⯑ſionally overflows, and partly through a high-ſtanding [92] wood of pines, with which the village is ſurrounded on all ſides.

It's ſituation is tolerably high, but the land round it is marſhy, and buſhy. It is wonderful, that ſo con⯑ſiderable and populous a city as Bolgari ſeems for⯑merly to have been, ſhould be ſo badly ſituated in reſ⯑pect to it's water, which cannot be procured, but by wells. The Wolga runs here in a ſtraight line, for the diſtance of three miles, and though the village in⯑clines to the river, it does not appear, that it ever had it's courſe near this city.

On the eaſtern ſide of the village is the ſcite of a cloiſter, with ſome wooden-buildings, and a fine ſtone-built church. Within the diſtrict of this cloiſter, which is encompaſſed with a hedge, and goes by the name of Uſpenſkoi, are many pieces of antiquity. The moſt remarkable is, a miſgir or tower, built with ſmooth-hewn free-ſtone, rather more than eighty-four feet high, in pretty good preſervation. It has a wind⯑ing ſtair-caſe to the top, conſiſting of ſeventy-two ſteps, each ſtep twelve inches and three-quarters high. Theſe ſtairs have been repaired, and the tower has been covered with a wooden-roof, and an Arabian inſcrip⯑tion within, new written. The entrance is on the ſouth, and has a ſtrong iron-hinge remaining, on which hung the door. In ſundry places there are openings, to let in the light; and, adjoining this miſgir, was an irregular, ſquare building ſtrongly erected, part of the walls of which is now ſtanding, and ſeems to have been formerly a houſe of prayer; the tower ſtands on one corner of it. This wall is built with ſtones, unequal in ſize, clumſily joined, and badly hewn; among which one my diſcern flints, lime, ſand, and ſeveral kinds of ſtucco, all apparently brought from the mountainous part of the Wolga. Eaſt of this, ſtand the remains of a little, Tartarian houſe of prayer, ſo⯑lidly built with ſtones of different ſizes, with a vaulted [94] roof. The lower part is ſquare, but the roof is oc⯑tangular. Each ſide is thirty-five feet long. It has been repaired, and converted into a Popiſh chapel, de⯑dicated to one of their ſaints, called Nikolao, the miraculous. The entrance to this is in the weſt front, and the windows or opening, to let in the light, on the ſouthern ſide. On other ſpots of this encloſure, are the remains of ſome old building, now converted in⯑to a cellar.

There are four other ancient buildings within the ditch, in good preſervation, with a great quantity of decayed wall-rubbiſh, and veſtiges of habitations. On the weſt, are the ruins of a conſiderable building, called by the peaſants, the Greek-houſe, but for what reaſon, I know not.

Among the great number of erections is a tower, ſtanding in a field, 350 feet diſtant ſouth-weſt from the cloiſter, built with the ſame material, as the one I have named, only thicker, and about ſixty-three feet in height. Not far from this, towards the cloiſter, are the foundations of ſome ſpacious buildings, among which, the houſe of prayer, which belonged to the tower, probably ſtood.

Five hundred and ſixty feet further to the ſouth-weſt, ſtands yet a little ſquare building, made of ſtrong and ſolid free-ſtone, the vaulted-roof of which is [95] fallen in on one ſide. It's entrance is on the weſt, and it has a ſmall window on the ſouth. In the weſt⯑ern front, on each ſide, is a falſe window. It has two ſimilar ones, on each of the northern and ſouthern fronts, with this difference, that thoſe on the laſt two, are farther diſtant from each other, than thoſe on the weſtern. If ſuppoſition may be admitted, this ſeems to have been nothing but a houſe of prayer.

The building of which, the principal foundation is now to be ſeen, ſtanding on the ſouthern ſide of the village, and the very centre of the city's diſtrict, is much more extenſive and conſiderable, and deſerves our attention; but, it is ſcarce to be conjectured, for what purpoſe it was erected. The country people call it the court-houſe, and I have no good reaſon to call it otherwiſe. The ſquare diviſion of rooms of which the foundations may be ſeen, appear to have been en⯑trances from without, but not to have had any com⯑munication with the apartments in the middle; and, alſo not to have been higher than the ſecond ſtory. There are three ſmall rooms in the eaſtern front, two larger ones in the ſouthern, and an oblong one in the weſtern. In it's northern corner, is an oblong, ſquare foundation, which touches it only at it's angle, and the northern front of the principal building, where the entrance is, ſhews no ſigns of ſide rooms.

[96]As Dr. PALLAS has given us no regular view of the ſcite of this place, I have not given all the buildings together, but have thrown two of the principal ones into one plate, and have given my readers the third, by itſelf, an account of which is as follows.

[99]Near Bolgari have been found a great many ancient tomb-ſtones, chiefly with Arabian, but ſome with Ar⯑menian epitaphs, with part of which the foundation of the new church of Uſprenſki are built, and the re⯑mainder lies ſcattered about, upon the ground. Theſe tomb-ſtones are of various ſizes, their figure like thoſe I deſcribed at Kaſimof, and ſome of them are of the ſame bigneſs. By order of the Emperor, who ſhewed his love of arts and ſciences upon every occaſion, they were not only exactly copied, but a tranſlation was made of all that were legible. Forty-nine have been tranſlated, twenty-two of which are dated in the year of the Hegyra, 623. Of courſe, it is natural to ſup⯑poſe, there muſt have been ſome epidemic ſickneſs in the city that year; the reſt are variouſly dated. The Arabian ones include only a ſpace of 123 years, that is, from the year of the Hegyra 619, to that of 742; during which time, Baty-Khan, previovs to his inva⯑ding the weſt, is ſaid to have reigned here. There are three in the Armenian language, one dated 557; and two, 984 and 986, which is in the middle of the ſix⯑teenth century, comprehending a ſpace of 429 years. Theſe epitaphs contain nothing but a Mahometan ſen⯑tence, (not found in the Armenian inſcriptions,) with the name, birth, and dignity of the deceaſed. They are chiefly eminent Bulgarians and Tartars of both ſexes, ſome prieſts, ſome laymen, and perhaps merchants. Of ſome, it is ſaid, they were born in the Perſian pro⯑vince Schamachie, and one in Skirvan, whence it ap⯑pears [100] that this town, on account of it's trade and commerce, muſt have drawn ſome of it's inhabitants from very diſtant parts. A better conception may be formed of it's trade, from the little ſilver and copper-coins, found by the children in the fields. Among the ſilver ones, are many ſtamped with a pretty Ara⯑bian or Kufiſchian inſcription. They conſiſt of fine ſilver, are very thick, but ſeldom exceed the ſize of an Engliſh groat. There are alſo found ſome of an inferior ſilver, and badly ſtamped, having, on one ſide, ſtars or other little ornaments, F, on the others, ſome ele⯑vated points, a circle, or ſome whimſical mark, of the ſame kind with thoſe uſed by the Baſchkirians, (who are ignorant of the art of writing,) when they ſign their names. I have given a drawing of them, but theſe marks are more general on the copper coin, par⯑ticularly within the treble triangle G.

[101]Beſides theſe coins, neat toys wrought in fine gold and ſilver, have alſo been found; tho' theſe riches are now almoſt wholly exhauſted. They brought me an abundance of jingling things made of braſs and iron, beſides ſeveral pointed hatchets, faſtened to handles with wooden pins, inſtead of nails. I ſaw alſo ſome weapons, that are ſeldom met with, and which Strah⯑lenberg gives a deſcription of; and, a variety of co⯑rals, that have been turned with a lathe and afterwards burnt, having the form of large buttons, full of little holes, which perhaps may have been uſed, as the beads of a Roſary. Moſt of them were brick-colour⯑ed, ſome whitiſh, and others blackiſh; and, alſo ſome ſmaller ones of varied coloured glaſs, beſides pieces of earthen pots, beautifully coloured. A perſon who could ſtay here in ſummer, might, giving himſelf the trouble, and gaining the confidence of the inhabitants, find out ſome valuable pieces of antiquity; but, it was impoſſible for me to do this in winter. And though I took all poſſible means to ingratiate myſelf with the people, I am perſwaded that what I procured, was not the moſt rare and valuable. What a variety of theſe antiquities muſt have fallen then into bad hands! The Tartars, who come this way in winter, purchaſe the clothes and coins here collected with great avidity and care, and I was but juſt in time to procure ſome few articles. On account of the ſeverity of the froſt, and the deep and heavy ſnow, it was impoſſible for me to give that [102] deſcription of this place and it's environs which it de⯑ſerves, and which I wiſhed to do.

Simburſky. The reſt of the winter I ſpent at Sim⯑burſky, examining into the animals and fiſheries of this diſtrict; for the braſs and iron manufactories in the neighbourhood, are ſcarce worth notice.

In the mountainous diſtricts about the Wolga, the Ruſſian marmotes are often met with, in whole troops or families, great numbers of badgers, and very fine ermine, and ferrets innumerable. But the common weaſel, which throughout Ruſſia and Siberia, becomes in winter, white as ſnow, is not to be found here. Mr. Linnaeus was unacquainted with the European weaſel, only in it's winter fur, which changes white at that time of the year in all northern countries, like the er⯑mine and the hare. (See Lapland and Norway.) It's fur in ſummer-time, is of a black-brown colour, but the fur of thoſe which are bred in the ſouthern parts of Europe, are of a beautiful yellow-red. I have ſeen the ermine from the Molucca Iſlands, which like the weaſel, in the ſouthern climes, never changes it's fur. Buffon juſtly aſſerts, that the ermine is an animal pecu⯑liar to northern countries alone.

The moſt common animal of all here, is the ſtep-mouſe, (Mus Citillus,) which in all the open deſarts and heaths, between the Wolga and the Don, to the [103] 53d degree of latitude, has a moſt beautiful, ſpotted fur, and as it is eaſy to be caught, I wonder it is not. But in all the ſouthern countries, ſituated from the eaſtern part of the Wolga to Siberia, this animal not only increaſes in ſize, but it's fur is grey and ſpeckled, and it has a buſhy tail, and reſembles the marmot, both in appearance and manner. Theſe diſtricts ſwarm with pernicious field-mice, two kinds of which are but little known, the Mus agrarius, and the Mus mi⯑nutus. They are generally found in the open fields, under heaps of corn ſet up there, in the Ruſſian way.

The muſk-rat, common in all the lakes about the Wolga, is alſo remarkable for it's fur, which is very cheap, and uſed only to border, common fur clothes. Notwithſtanding this, it's wool is ſoft and fine, equal to that of the beaver in ſoftneſs and brightneſs, and though ſhorter, perhaps might be equally good for the manufacture of hats.

Of the common ſorts of wild fowls, there are plen⯑ty of the buſtard kind, (Tetrix,) and partridges. Both are caught during the winter, in ſnares and nets. Woodcocks are ſcarce to be found, only in the pine-woods about the Wolga, and a ſpecies of grouſe, (T. Bonaſia) is ſometimes met with, but as ſeldom. Of rare birds, I met here with the wood-pecker, (picus tridactylus.) The ſmalleſt falcon, (Falco minutus,) [104] which is not much larger than a thruſh; a kind of grey hawk, (Falco ruſticolus,) called here Lunn, and a remarkably beautiful kind of blue tit-mouſe ^*, com⯑mon from the Wolga to Siberia; and, the water-ſtar⯑ling, (Sturnus cinclus,) may be ſeen, throughout the whole winter, in ſeveral adjacent rivers, which do not freeze, as the Uren, Kamajur, &c.

I don't believe there is a river in Europe ſo full of fiſh as the Wolga, including all it's arms or branch⯑es. It not only ſerves all the neighbouring diſtricts, but this river, and the Jaik, ſupplies the whole empire. Though the fiſheries will be properly deſcribed in the lower parts of this river, I will mention what I ſaw here.

Thoſe fiſhes, which are caught in the Wolga only, (not in it's branches,) are the ſturgeon, the horn-back, the huſo or iſinglaſs fiſh, and the ſalmon. The more common kinds are the barble, the ſhad, the gold-eye, and another called Tſchechon.

The Bjeluga ſturgeon is often caught in this river, from thirteen to ſixteen feet long, and from 1200 to 1800 pounds in weight; but, the ſmalleſt kind of this fiſh, which is moſt frequent, is five or ſix feet ſhorter than the former. The horn-back, (Oſſetr,) is caught [105] from three feet in length to near ſix, and weighs from twenty pounds to eighty. The little huſo, (accipenſer Ruthenus,) which is peculiar to the Caſpian ſea, and has no other name, is not longer, when full-grown, than about twenty-eight inches, and weighs about twelve pounds.

They have alſo here another kind of ſturgeon, not much bigger than the huſo, but ſhaped like a ſturgeon, and is very rough and thorny. They call it Koſtera; but having compared many of theſe fiſhes of a differ⯑ent age, I am confident, that they are only young ſturgeons, and that the older they grow, the more they improve in ſmoothneſs and fat.

The red-ſalmon which they have here, is only ſeen in the two laſt months of the year, and is even then very rare in the Wolga; but, the white-ſalmon comes up this river, from the beginning of January to June. They are from twenty-one inches, to three feet in length, and do not exceed 30lb. in weight. The bar⯑bel is ſomewhat heavier, and about four feet in length. But the general ſize is three feet. The ſhad, (Som,) has been ſeen here ſix feet long, and 120 pounds in weight. It is caught commonly in ſpring and autumn, and is thoroughly a fiſh, well known for his waving motion, in order to avoid the net, or tear it to reſcue other fiſhes.

[106]The gold-eye, (clupea aloſa,) which, on account of it's colour, is called Sheleniza or iron-fiſh, or from a whimſical opinion, that eating it will turn perſons mad, Beſchenaja Ryba, or mad-fiſh, comes up the Wolga in prodigious ſhoals, from the beginning of May to the end of ſummer, and frequently load the nets, to the diſpleaſure of the fiſhermen. The Ruſſians throw this fiſh away, or ſell it at a cheap rate to the Mordvines, and the people of Tſchuwa, who eat them freſh, or dry them for winter proviſion. It is a fiſh that would eat very well ſmoked, and ſupply the lower claſs of people, if they could get rid of that fooliſh prejudice, that ſuch as eat it, will go mad.

The Tſchechon, (Cyprinus cultratus,) is caught in ſpring, in vaſt quantities, with the gold-eye, and is much of the ſame ſize, but on account of it's dry na⯑ture but little eſteemed; of courſe, it is only eaten by the poor, ſometimes freſh, and ſometimes ſalted.

Beſides theſe fiſhes, the Wolga and all it's branches are full of others generally known, perch, bream, trout, &c. But the eel is never met with, neither in the Wolga, nor any of the rivers or brooks that flow into it, nor in the neighbouring lakes, nor is it ſeen in all Siberia. But inſtead of the eel, they catch the quab plentifully, by hooks baited with pieces of fiſh, and laid in the winter-time underneath the ice. The [107] Wolga is alſo crowded with crabs of an extra⯑ordinary ſize, but of a bad taſte. The common people cannot endure the ſight of them, of courſe, they are only eaten by the better claſs, and the inhabitants of great towns, who are free from theſe vulgar prejudices. They are caught plentifully in winter, by making holes in the ice, and letting down a round flat piece of baſket-work, in the middle of which they tie a piece of fiſh, and when they crawl on it to get at their prey, are drawn up.

There is ſcarce a place in the world, where they make uſe of ſo many whimſical and ingenious ma⯑chines or inſtruments for fiſhing, as on the river Wol⯑ga. Not to mention their common caſt and drag-nets, their baſkets, and bow-nets, they uſe another method, which is a kind of ſnare, and deſerves to be deſcribed. Chooſing ſuch places in the river for this ſnare, where the bed of it is flat, to about the middle of the chan⯑nel; at the bottom of ſuch places, they drive in ſtakes, about half a yard aſunder, acroſs that part of the river, either in a ſtraight line, or an obtuſe angle, which opens downwards with the ſtream, the top of the ſtakes ſtanding above the water. Againſt theſe ſtakes they place hurdles of baſket-work, as high, as will reach from the bottom of the river to it's ſurface. Theſe hurdles are ſunk between the current and the ſtakes, and kept in their places by ſtones and the [108] ſtream, driving againſt them. This is deſigned to ob⯑ſtruct the paſſage and make the fiſh turn aſide, to ſeek another way. Now, in ſome part of this baſket-work, an opening or entrance, ſixteen or eighteen feet is left, into a ſquare place made in the ſame manner, and cloſ⯑ed on three ſides with hurdles, wherein the fiſhes ſwim; the third ſide of this ſquare place being open, leads to other encloſures, in a kind of labyrinth, and all in the courſe of the ſtream, and inclining to the ſhore. Over theſe ſnares or encloſures, the ice is conſtantly broke, and over the holes a thatched ſhed is erected, to ſhelter the fiſhermen who wait here, and who have a fire occaſionally, to warm them. The ſhed is large enough to admit the men to walk round the enclo⯑ſures.

Now it is eaſy to conceive, that a fiſh, ſwimming along the hurdles to find a paſſage, muſt neceſſarily go into theſe encloſures; but, to know the arrival of ſuch fiſh and ſeize it, the following method is made uſe of.

But not to be conſtrained to ſit up the whole night watching, they have contrived a method, that the fiſh ſhall enſnare himſelf, and give notice to the fiſhermen. This is by hanging ſome ſtones to the bottom of the ſliding net or grate that ſhuts up the entrance, and making it drop of itſelf, and this is effected in the manner of the door of the common rat-trap, by a ſmall piece of wood fixed at the entrance into the en⯑cloſure, which gives way on being touched by a fiſh in it's paſſage, and communicating with a piece of me⯑chaniſm above, lets the net or fall-gate down, and at the ſame time rings an alarm-bell, which wakes the ſleeping fiſhermen, and gives them notice of the event.

This ingenious piece of mechaniſm is fixed in the river in ſummer-time, in proportion to the height of [110] the water, and remains there till the ice drives, in or⯑der to catch Wolga ſturgeons and other great fiſhes, which ſwim up the ſtream. When the ice begins to drive, it is removed till January, and then made uſe of, till the breaking of the ice in ſpring, this being the ſeaſon of ſalmon-fiſhing.

'Every ſpring and autumn,' ſays Tooke, ‘theſe hur⯑dle encloſures undergo a thorough repair, and in deep waters, a number of divers are employed, to examine all the lower parts and amend them.’

‘It is impoſſible for the moſt lively imagination to repreſent the extreme fatigue and the different hard⯑ſhips theſe divers undergo. Juſt before they go into the water, they drink a dram of brandy, and then get upon an oven made extremely hot, near the end of this hurdle fence. Here they continue half an hour, then wrapping their ſheep-ſkin ſhube about them, they get into the boat, throw off their cloths, when they come to the place to be examined, make the ſign of the croſs three times on their forehead and breaſt, and are let down by degrees to the bot⯑tom of the river. In this ſuſpended ſtate, they are alternately drawn up and let down again, that they may examine the whole apparatus. Want of breath obliges them to be drawn up now and then, above the ſurface. This they repeat, till ſhivering with cold all over, they find their limbs begin to ſtiffen, and refuſe to perform their office. They then take [111] another dram, repair to the oven to re-heat themſelves, and begin their work afreſh; and they repeat theſe alternatives of heat and cold, till the blood guſhes out at their noſe and ears, and they are caſt half dead into the boat, which is conſtantly near them. The ſtrongeſt of theſe divers cannot remain more than ſeven minutes under water, nor ſupport theſe ſudden tranſits from heat to cold more than five times a day; and, as it generally requires ſeven days to repair the works thoroughly, the diver is con⯑demned, during that period, to experience all the conſequences of being ſtunned in this moſt violent and extraordinary manner. Their health, as the reader will naturally conclude, is much impaired by this tormenting practice, and none of them ever reach the ordinary term of human life, but die whilſt in their youth. No man can follow this dreadful trade longer than ten years, and numbers are forced to relinquiſh it, in the third or fourth year.’

Among the various kinds of fiſhes caught in the Wolga, the ſeveral ſpecies of ſturgeon, and the white-ſalmon, are the moſt excellent and profitable, as to price. The latter, as long as the froſt continues, are tranſport⯑ed freſh into the northern parts of Ruſſia, but after⯑wards ſalted and ſmoked like the red-ſalmon; the art of ſmoking fiſh, however, they know but little of; if they knew better how to cure it, both kinds of ſalmon would be excellent food.

[112]The various kinds of ſturgeon caught in this river in ſummer and autumn, are put by hundreds into the large ponds, near the Wolga, which the floods leave in hollow places, in the low grounds, and are left there all the winter. They are drag⯑ged to theſe lakes or ponds, by ropes, paſſed through the mouth and out at the gills. As ſoon as the winter grows milder, they are taken out with a net, from un⯑derneath the ice, in theſe lakes, and tranſported in a frozen ſtate.

The roe of this fiſh, which is the celebrated Caviar as they call it, is conſidered as the greateſt delicacy, and the niceſt part of the whole ſturgeon, and is con⯑veyed to great diſtances in this country, in winter-time, without being ſalted. The largeſt Wolga ſtur⯑geons will produce ſometimes 200lb. of roe, and as five eggs of this roe weigh but one grain, it may eaſily be calculated, how many millions of eggs the roe of ſuch a fiſh muſt contain, not leſs than near eight mil⯑lions; but what is ſtill more remarkable is, that though few fiſhes come up the river to ſpawn, no young ſtur⯑geons are ever caught or ſeen. The roes of other ſturgeons do not weigh more than thirty pounds. In ſummer, they ſalt and export, in barrels, large quanti⯑ties of this roe or cavear. The method of ſalting it is this. After the roe is cleaned of it's ſkin and veſſels, and well ſalted, they put it into boxes that have holes in the bottom, and preſs it with heavy weights, ſo that [113] the moiſture drains from it. This done, they wring it in linen rags, preſs it into barrels, and pour fiſh-fat over it, to prevent it's corrupting. In other places, they preſerve the roes of ſalmon and pike; ſcalding the latter in boiling water before they ſalt it, in order to remove it's viſcidity: but, the plentiful roe of the barbel and bream, are conſidered as unwholeſome, and given as food, to geeſe and poultry.

Of the other ſpecies of ſturgeon, they throw no part away. It's inteſtines are partly eaten when freſh. A ſtrong tendon which this fiſh has upon it's back, is ta⯑ken out before it is ſalted, and when dryed, ſold as a great dainty, by the name of Weſiga. Of the air-bladders they make iſinglaſs; for, this purpoſe, they chooſe thoſe of ſturgeons in preference, as having the ſtrongeſt viſcidity. Theſe bladders are ſoaked in wa⯑ter, and after the external ſkin is taken off, the inter⯑nal part, which is the iſinglaſs, is rolled up and dried. The beſt ſort is rolled up, the ſecond beſt laid together in leaves like a book, and the worſt ſort is merely dri⯑ed, and ſold at a low rate. Farther down the river Wolga, the make a fine glue, by boiling the freſh bladders, and caſt it in moulds of various forms. Upon the river Oka, where they have only the little huſo, they beat the bladder out thin, in the ſtate it is taken from the fiſh, and dry it. On the Wolga, they uſe ſhad-bladders for this purpoſe, but theſe they bruiſe and paſs through a ſieve. The ſtrongeſt of this ſort [114] of glue is uſed by the joiners. They have begun now in ſome places, to make fiſh-glue from the barbel.

The ſhad, amongſt their large fiſhes, is the leaſt eſ⯑teemed, yet the ſkin of this fiſh, being thin and ſmooth, like that of an eel, when the ſkins of other fiſhes are thrown away, is ſpread and dried, and ſold to the country people, eſpecially thoſe among the Tar⯑tars, to form their windows of, (ſee Lapland,) being as tranſparent as horn. They uſe alſo for this purpoſe, the peritonaeum of animals, cleaned and dried. I found the ſhad-bladder excellent for covering of bottles, in which animal preparations are preſerved, as it keeps out moiſture, better than other bladders.

Tſchirikowo. By an excurſion to the village Tſchi⯑rikowo, at the diſtance of twenty miles from Simbur⯑ſky, I met with ſome other curioſities. This village is ſituated upon the brook Birutſh, which flows into the Swijaga, and which is not only remarkable for its trout and mother-of-pearl which is found in it, in common with other adjacent waters, but for there having been elephant's bones diſcovered there about the ſhores. I have myſelf ſeen ſome work made of an elephant's tooth, found 200 years ago in this place, which had taken a light yellow colour. Many other bones, par⯑ticularly a ſkull of an elephant, have at ſundry times been found in the banks of this river. I have alſo ſeen ſome workmanſhip of ivory, made of a tooth [115] found here, equal to the ſoundeſt ivory, only that the point of the tooth was a little decayed. So, that it may be matter of wonder, that a bone could remain after a length of years paſt memory, without decay. In ſeveral ſpots, human bones they ſay are alſo found in great quantity. If this be the caſe, it will be no ſmall matter of triumph to ſome writers who, aſcribe all the elephant bones found in the northern diſtricts, to former wars. But there are more probable arguments to aſcribe theſe relicks to, which are diſperſed as far as the icy ocean; to ſome higher and more important ca⯑taſtrophes of the earth.

1769. March 10. I left Simburſky on the 10th of March. A winter journey leaves but little opportu⯑nity for uſeful obſervation, and the road back to Staw⯑ropal is now ſufficiently known, to need any more to be ſaid of it. The winter-road was over ſo many heaths, and the ſnow lay ſo deep, that we were obliged to walk the whole night on the 10th, and reached Stawropal, the next evening.

March 16. Some little matters I had to adjuſt, de⯑tained me at Stawropal till the 16th. The chain of lime-mountains, which compoſe the ſhore of the Wol⯑ga, and are upwards of 700 feet high, are but barren walls of rocks and torn cliffs, but they pleaſe the eye by their variety, and ſtrike it with wonder. The great quantities of birds of prey, that inhabit theſe rocky [116] ſhores, building their neſts here in ſummer, are beyond deſcription. The whitiſh eagle, (Vultur albicilla,) is frequently met with on theſe mountains, even in win⯑ter; and, many beautiful hawks build alſo their neſts in the cavities. Here is plenty alſo in ſummer, of a curious kind of wild-ducks, (Anas rutila,) whoſe fea⯑thers reſemble the colour of the red-fox. There are a few reddiſh or black bears, and alſo ſome lynxs, in the thick foreſts of theſe mountains, not many mar⯑tens, but a fine ſort of large ſquirrels, inclining to white. The fur of this animal, is the ſecond beſt in Ruſſia.

About forty miles from Stawropal, near the mouth of the river Sok, is a high-hill, called Zarew Kurgan, with a round baſe. From every appearance, and every rational conjecture, this mountain ſeems to have been torn from the lime-mountains on the oppoſite ſide of the river, and to owe it's roundneſs to accidental inun⯑dations; but, according to common report, it is ſaid to have the following, incredible origin. The ſtory is differently told, but, the tenor is to this purpoſe: that in very early days, an enormous army, paſſing this diſ⯑trict, the commander, in order to erect a monument to his power, is ſaid to have ordered each ſoldier to carry a cap-full of earth upon this ſpot, and that thus the hill roſe; but, what is much againſt the ſtory is, the hill's conſiſting of large pieces of rock, which could neither be put within the ſmall ſpace of a cap, nor be [117] carried by any one man. Some encreaſe this marvellous account, by adding, that the ſame army went back the ſame way, and having unfortunately loſt a great number of men, each ſoldier was commanded to take away a cap-full of earth from it, and notwithſtanding this, this large hill is ſtill left.

In the neighbourhood of this hill, near the village Podgory, a manor, belonging to Count Orlof, ſtands the village Sernoi-Gorodok, to which the ſulphur ma⯑nufactory was removed in the beginning of this cen⯑tury, from the river Sok. It is built along the ſteep ſhore of the Wolga, at the bottom of that very moun⯑tain, where the famous maſſy ſulphur is dug, and con⯑tains about forty dwelling-houſes, and ſome buildings belonging to the manufactory.

The very day of my arrival at the town of Samara, it thawed, and the weather was ſo exceedingly mild, during the latter days of March, that ſoon after the heights of Samara were expoſed to the beams of the meridian ſun, they loſt their hoary heads, and though it ſnowed violently on the laſt day of March and the firſt day of April, it ſo quickly diſappeared the enſuing days, that on the 12th day of April, the meadows be⯑gan to look green, and as the ice upon the Wolga daily decreaſed, I made a viſit to ſome of the adjacent parts, before all the ſnow was melted.

[118]By the middle of April, every appearance of win⯑ter was gone. Spring took it's place; the palm and the hazel began to bloom, and all the heights were delightfully enamelled with the ſtar of Bethlehem, the ſilver-weed, pheaſant-eye, violets, and a kind of wind-flower, the anemone patens. The birches and ſervice-trees put forth their leaves, and were followed on the 20th by every other buſh. Before the end of the month, the wild apple-tree, which in this diſtrict is conſidered as the moſt common buſh, began to blow, and all nature looked gay.

The aquatic birds were ſtill earlier ſeen. On the 19th and 20th of March, we ſaw wild ſwans and wild geeſe, and on the 25th, the open waters were crowded with ducks. The lapwing's plaintive notes were heard on the 20th, and followed, before the end of this month, by every other water-fowl, I took notice that theſe birds came from the weſt and north-weſt, as they do in other parts of Europe; but, the birgander, (Onocrotalus,) the ſtork, (of which they have here a white kind,) and other land-fowls, came from the ſouth. Among the land-birds, the firſt that made it's appearance in the middle of March, was the crow, and at the end of March, the wild-pidgeon, the ſtarling, the plover, and a kind of lark, (Alauda Alpeſtris,) which latter was as abundantly to be met with, during the whole ſpring, as the ſparrow. In the mean time, the mouſe, Citillus, which has already been mentioned, [119] crept out on all thoſe ſpots where the ſnow was melted, and coupled. The inſects were not viſible, but with the flowers; thoſe I firſt ſaw, were ſome butterflies and glow-worms, but neither theſe nor the warmth of the days, induced a viſit from the ſwallow, till the 16th of April, on which day I ſaw ſeveral, with the bee-eater, (Merops,) which convinces me they are birds of paſſage, or they would have appeared as ſoon as others. It has been ſaid, that ſwallows, in winter, retire to the water, but the Ruſſians know nothing of this fabulous account, or they would contradict it; for, there is no country that fiſhes ſo much, and ſweeps the waters, frozen or not frozen, with all kinds of nets. The uſual autumnal and heavy froſts drive all ſwallows from theſe diſtricts early; but, in the milder parts of Europe, it may eaſily be conceived, that ſome of theſe birds, after having tarried too long, and become too feeble and diſabled, from the rigor of the ſeaſon, to take a long journey, may creep into the water, or ſome hollow ground.

Samara. Before I proceed farther, I will give the reader ſome ſhort account of the town of Samara. This place is ſituated on the angle which the northern mouth of the river Samara forms with the Wolga, but ſtands chiefly on the Wolga bank. It was formerly a garriſon, and had a wooden fort, but was burnt down in 1703. In 1704, they erected a new one, with de⯑files, on a hill, on the eaſtern ſide, between the Wolga [120] and Samara, which is to be ſeen. The chief ſupport of this town, which continues to flouriſh, is breeding of cattle, and their great commerce is in freſh and ſalt fiſh, and roe, (Cavear.) To carry on this trade, when the weather is open and the roads paſſable, they travel over the ſteps in caravans to the river Jaik, to fell their proviſions to buyers or merchants, who come there from all the northern and weſtern diſtricts. On account of this commerce, they throw a temporary bridge over the Samara to a road, that leads ſtraight to the capital of the Caſſanians, who live near the ri⯑ver Jaik. On this road, there are many way-houſes at certain diſtances, for the accommodation of travel⯑lers.

The inhabitants of Samara, have ſome fiſheries on the Wolga, at a diſtance from the town, but in cer⯑tain reaches of the river, which they conſider as be⯑longing to them. Beſides their own cattle, they traf⯑fick with the Kalmucks for ſheep-ſkins, and tallow. They have no manufactories, except a few tanneries, without the town, and ſome very inconſiderable ones of hides and ſilks. The citizens or burghers of Samara, belong to a court dependant on the regency of Caſan; but, the people of Caſan, that live in and about Sa⯑mara, are numbered among thoſe of the diſtrict of Orenburg, and formerly, the whole town belonged to it.

[121]In winter, Samara is full of trading Tartars from Kaſimof, who come here with lamb-ſkins, which they barter for with the Kirgians and Kalmucks, and which they bring here to get tanned and ſewed toge⯑ther by the chriſtian Kalmucks who reſide in this town, before they carry them to Moſcow, and other places. Moſt of the fine lamb-ſkins ſold in Ruſſia, are brought from this place, as alſo the ſkins taken from the legs of lambs and fewed together by the Kalmuck women, and which are ſold as furs. The thread uſed for this purpoſe, in common, is drawn from Ruſſian linen, in lengths about an ell long; but, what they uſe for themſelves, is made from the divided ſinews of ani⯑mals; a kind of fine cat-gut.

The ice no ſooner leaves the Wolga, but a great many ſhips and barges are ſeen, paſſing and re-paſſing to and from Aſtrachan, into the internal parts of the Ruſſian Empire, and ſome, frequently, at anchor here. Thoſe that ſail down the river carry timber, and wood of all kinds, wooden and earthen veſſels, iron, foreign goods, and all ſorts of corn; thoſe that go up the ſtream from parts below, are laden with Aſtrachan goods, hides, tallow, and ſalt.

The environs of Samara conſiſt chiefly of waſte-ground and heath, riſing gradually into high hills. In the ſnow-drains that run into the Samara, are found many beautiful pebbles and flame-coloured agates, im⯑preſſed [122] with figures, as if frozen. Many of theſe have been long collected and poliſhed, at Catherineburg.

The hills that lie up the river from Samara, and form it's mountainous ſhore, are ſo happily ſituated, and have ſo fit a ſoil, that there is no place in the whole Ruſſian empire better adapted for trying the cultivation of vines: and ſuch trials, if made by ex⯑perienced vine-dreſſers, with ſuch vines as love a loa⯑my ſoil, muſt ſurely meet with ſucceſs. Here might alſo be cultivated other things, which require a warm climate, and thrive in the ſouthern parts of Europe. But not the leaſt attempt has been hitherto made to introduce any thing of the kind, except pimento, and the common water-melon. The water-melon gardens are upon the heath, on both ſides the river, and are open to the waſte. They plow the ground, ſow the ſeeds, and take no farther care of them, than occaſio⯑nally to water them in dry weather, and when the fruit is ripe, leave it to be gathered by children. As they raiſe a great quantity of this fruit, they ſalt and pickle it as we do cucumbers, but I don't remem⯑ber ever taſting any thing ſo nauſeous. Some ſtew them, and it is ſaid, they are then very ſweet.

The pimento, of which great quantities are raiſed at Aſtrachan, is ſold by the name of cod-pepper, or red-muſtard. It is ſown in the ſame way they ſow cau⯑liflowers, viz. in flat boxes, raiſed from the ground. In [123] the month of July, they remove the ſeedling plants to beds in a garden prepared for this purpoſe, in rows, at ſome diſtance from each other; and water them till they ſeem to have taken good root, and are pretty ſtrong. It ſeldom happens, that an early froſt pre⯑vents the ripening of this fruit. The ripe pods after being dried in an oven, are reduced to powder, ſold at the rate of nine ſhillings or leſs, for thirty-ſix pounds weight, and are uſed by the common people as a ſpice. Many of theſe pimento and water-melon plantations, are made only about the end of June, in thoſe hollows, where the water ſtood all the winter, and at this ſeaſon is dry, and yet their fruit ripens. They have begun here to plant apple-trees, which flouriſh very much about Simburſky, generally called Simbirſk and Syfran; but, the increaſe of caterpillars and other deſtructive in⯑ſects, is much againſt this uſeful branch of gardening.

Yet there are many wild fruits, apple-trees, almonds, very tall and buſhy cherry-trees, (Ceraſus pumila,) and of a very ſpicy flavour. The juice which they ſqueeze from them, is ſold very cheap, will keep two years, and makes a regaling ſummer-drink; they have made a ſucceſsful attempt to tranſport it to Moſcow, as ſoon as the river is open. If this juice is ſuffered to ferment, it makes an excellent, ſpicy vinegar, and if good, is as nice as the beſt cherry liquor. Theſe cher⯑ry trees or ſhrubs, and almond buſhes, are handſome garden hedges, on account of their early bloom; and [124] for a living fence, no better tree can be made choice of than the wild-apple, which is, properly ſpeaking, formed ſo by nature. Beſides, here are ſome remark⯑able and beautiful ſhrubs, to ornament a northern gar⯑den, as the maple, (acer Tartaricum;) the falſe a⯑cacia, (Robinia fruteſcens;) the dioſma, (Spirea cre⯑nata,) the broom, and the upright honey-ſuckle, (Lo⯑nicera Tartarica.)

Beſides the above-mentioned, vernal plants, the heights about Samara produce ſome remarkable and curious ones, that bloom in May and June, to ſome of which there are no Engliſh names, but I have given ſuch as moſt reſemble them. The Onoſma echioides and ſimpliciſſima; the clove July-flower, (Dianthus proli⯑fer;) the virgin's bower; (Clematis recta;) the ſpurge, (Euphorbia ſegetalis;) the ſage, (Salvia ne⯑meroſa and nutans;) the ſage-tree, (Phlomis tuberoſa and Herba venti;) the dragon's-head, (Dracocephalum Thymiflorum and Sibiricum;) the cat-mint, (Nepeta violacea;) the French honey-ſuckle, (Hedyſarum Ono⯑brychis;) the milk-vetch, (Aſtragalus piloſus;) The Grandiflorus, Contortuplicatus; the Moſcow and Si⯑berian centaury, the thiſtle, (Carduus cyanoides,) and the elicampane, (Inula hirta and odorata.) Among theſe plants, none is more known than the Onoſma echi⯑oides, which has a long root, ſeemingly dyed on the outſide, with a beautiful red. Young maidens gather this root and paint their cheeks with it, on which ac⯑count [125] it is called by the Ruſſians, Rumaniza; by the Tartars, Krſchab.

Here grows alſo ſpontaneouſly a wild aſparagus, but ſeldom ſo large as the little finger. Though it is good to eat, the inhabitants are either ignorant or careleſs of this gift of nature.

Among the remarkable animals of the diſtrict of Samara, the ſquirrel, (Sciurus glis,) which they fat⯑ten in Italy for the table, deſerves to be noticed. I have found this animal in the rocky cliffs of the eaſtern mountains, and tried to make this and other animals which ſleep all winter, as the Urchin and Mus citillus, ſleep, by ſhutting them up in an icy cave in ſummer⯑time, and ſucceeded, for on looking at them a few days afterwards, I found them quite inſenſible.

Of all the little animals found in theſe ſteps or waſtes, the moſt beautiful and remarkable is the dwarf kind of hare, not larger than a rat, almoſt the colour, and having all the form of common hares, except the ears, which are round and ſhorter. This little creature leads a ſolitary life in ſpots, overſhadowed with buſhes, where it digs holes like a rabbit, with ſeveral paſſages leading to them, and hides itſelf all the day. At twi⯑light it ſteals abroad in ſearch of food, chirps like a quail, and may be heard at night, and before dawn, at half a mile diſtance. The country people liſten to [126] the noiſe, but are at a loſs to know from whence it comes, being wholly unacquainted with the animal. It brings forth towards the end of May, from four to ſix young ones, which like young rats, are blind and na⯑ked. In winter-time, it makes trenches in the turf, and ſeeks it's food beneath the ſnow.

The muſk-rat, (Sorex moſchatus,) is another uncom⯑mon animal, ſeen frequently on the river Samara, and the lakes. It is generally caught in thoſe baſket-tools fixed in the river for catching of fiſh, and is commonly found ſuffocated, tho' it's internal parts are formed for living on the water. This animal makes it's neſt in holes, under water, in the banks of the lakes, but as they work the hole upwards, the further end is above the level of the water, and of courſe, lies dry. In winter, it has no air but what it receives below the ice. As ſoon as this begins to melt, it is often ſeen playing on the ſurface, and baſking in the ſun. It has a very ſenſible and flexible ſnout, which it can turn into it's mouth, and with which it digs up worms and leeches in marſhy grounds, on which it feeds, muddling in water, like a duck. It's eyes are ſmaller than the mole's; if provoked, it ſqueaks like a mouſe, and bites dan⯑gerouſly. It's entrails when freſh, have a ſtrong, ſul⯑phureous ſmell, but the muſky ſcent which proceeds from it's glands, beneath the ſcaly ſkin of it's tail, is more powerful, than that of muſk itſelf. Linnoeus has [127] claſſed this animal in the genus of beavers; but, ac⯑cording to it's marks, it is a true ſorex.

It muſt eaſily be conceived, that ſo warm a diſtrict as Samara is, in the ſummer, muſt ſwarm with inſects. The common grey and green lizards are here in ſuch quantities, that ſtrike a buſh, and you will drive out numbers; they bury in the ground under high graſs, and their holes have two entrances to each.

Among the inſects, I took notice of an uncommon large tarantula, with which the environs of Samara ſwarm. Theſe inſects will make holes two feet perpen⯑dicularly in the ſolid ground, where they lie all day, and never quit them till night, when they ſeek their prey. Though this inſect very much reſembles the Apulian tarantula, I never heard of any ill-effects from it's bite, and yet the peaſant's children, frequently digging them from their holes, to draw a kind of thread out of their ſkin, are frequently bitten. I was once bit my⯑ſelf, and a Caſanian whom I employed to look for ſome, was bit till he bled, the wound ſwelled, and was pain⯑ful for two or three days, but this was all.

Spaniſh flies are here caught in quantities during the month of May, and ſupply all the apothecaries ſhops in this country. Indeed, this diſtrict is very rich in curious inſects, and I never ſaw any, where ſo many of the lice-kind called, acarus reduvius, and ricinus; [128] the buſhes about Samara are full of them, and one cannot go into the fields, without having one's cloaths covered with them.

Among the remarkable things in the diſtrict of Sa⯑mara, I muſt notice the bones of elephants and buffa⯑los, that are often fiſhed out of the river, or found up⯑on it's banks. I met with a buffalo horn, which, in⯑dependant of the broken point and lower part, weighed upwards of ſix pounds, and it's greateſt diameter was four Paris inches.

May 1. Schelechmet. The ſpring being now very favourable, I purſued my way at the end of April, to Syſran, about ſixty miles diſtant. In my way there, I paſſed through the Mordvine village Schelechmet, where I was preſent at a nuptial ceremony, the moſt re⯑markable parts of which were as follow. As ſoon as the bride returned from the church where ſhe was mar⯑ried, and from which ſhe was brought back in a wag⯑gon, (with the bridemaid by her ſide;) and, over which a large, white linen ſheet was ſpread; ſhe was ta⯑ken by two friends of the bridegroom, and conducted howling, to the door of the bridegroom's houſe, where ſhe was greeted by all the neighbouring females. Af⯑terwards came her mother, with a round-bottomed pan full of dryed hops, which, ſetting fire to with a match, ſhe placed at her daughter's right foot, and which the bride was immediately to kick away. This is done [129] three times. Each time the pan was filled with freſh hops and fired. When ſhe kicks the pan from her, they attend particularly to the manner in which the pan is overturned, as, if it tumbles one way, it is conſidered as portentive of dire diſaſters to the young couple, if it falls another, as ominous of future happineſs. It reeled about and ſettled with the hollow ſide up⯑wards. This is a token of good-luck, and gave joy to the whole company, who were pretty well intoxica⯑ted, and called loudly for more beer, which was brought them in a cup, into which the bride threw ſome neat rings, (many of which ſhe had upon her fingers,) and before ſhe was ſuffered to enter the houſe. This delayed much the ſucceeding ceremo⯑nies, which I did not think worth while to wait for. But I was told, that prior to this, a ſpoonful of thick ſtir-about, made of oatmeal, was to be diſtributed to each inhabitant of the village, given them either in their hats, or on a corner of their coats, as moſt agree⯑able to the receiver.

Walofka, 15 miles from Samara. At a village called Walofka, about fifteen miles from Samara, is an ex⯑tenſive, Tartarian fortreſs, near half a mile in circum⯑ference, with a treble ditch and bank; but, there are no buildings on it, nor any veſtiges of buildings, but in ploughing the fields adjoining, Tartarian bricks are often found; perhaps, the remains of ſome hidden graves.

[130]The great road to Syfran, is over ſome high and open hills, but under a ſpecies of cultivation. Their method of huſbandry, may appear odd to a ſtranger; but what I relate, I ſaw. The countryman ſows his oats, millet and rye, on a ſpot of wild, lay land, which he conceives not to want manure, as if he deſtined it to be eaten by birds. He then plows it, and another horſe following with a harrow, but without a driver, compleats the work. Thus, one field after the other, is ſowed, ploughed, and harrowed, by a ſingle man, and two horſes. In ſowing wheat and barley they take a little more pains, this being their feſtival food, (for they brew their beer with malt, as we do,) and indeed it would not thrive by ſuch a mode of huſbandry. If the field is very diſtant from the village, the huſband⯑man takes his proviſions with him, and continues day and night upon the ground, till his land is all ſown, or he is called home, by the ſolemnity of his ſabbath. On theſe hills is ſeen a kind of mouſe, (Mus talpinus,) that lives on certain roots, which it ſeeks, by throwing up the ground that covers them.

May 5. On the fifth of May, I went to ſee the wonderful, rocky ſhore of the Wolga, in the neigh⯑bourhood of Koſtytſchi. This village, conſiſting of obout 300 houſes, and a wooden church, is erected on the ſteep and rocky banks of this river, between fifty and ſixty feet higher than the water. The wall of the river is near a mile in length, and is formed of a [131] yellowiſh lime-ſtone, in which are a number of cavi⯑ties and natural grottos, from twenty to thirty feet deep, producing a very beautiful effect. Theſe ex⯑cavations can be aſcribed only to the daſhing waves of the Wolga, which waſh away the earthy layers, and excavate the ſtone itſelf. Higher up, this rock ſtrikes the beholder with the idea of a dreadful ruin. The cliffs are inhabited by ring-doves, crows, and little birds of prey, which do not quit their ſituation even in winter. I found here a beautiful kind of water-wag-tail, (Motacilla Leucomela,) no where to be met with but in this rock, building it's neſt in the cliffs. In the water-drains near this village, is found a great deal of ſalt-petre.

The ſtone of this rock is penetrated very generally with ſomething like a pitchy ſubſtance, which is cer⯑tainly brought here by the water in a fluid ſtate, and ſettled; it is black and ſhining, and taken out in pieces that weigh many pounds. It is very brittle and crumbling, but of an inflammable nature, and will burn in the candle like ſealing-wax. Indeed, by an ad⯑dition which takes away the roughneſs, a beautiful ſealing-wax is made, and I was informed, that a mer⯑chant who formerly lived there, obtained an Imperial grant to manufacture ſealing-wax from it. I was told alſo at Samara, that this jet, with ſome other dug at Tetjuſchi, was formerly conveyed to the ſulphur manu⯑factory at Sernoi Gorodok, where they preſſed from it [132] an oil, uſed in the artillery. At preſent, this mineral is applied to no other uſe, than for ſmiths to blacken or lacquer their iron wares.

Syſran, May 5. I reached Syſran on the fifth of May at night. The greateſt part of this town is de⯑lightfully ſituated on a height, which occupies the northern angle, between the rivers Krymſa and Syſran⯑ka, into which latter the former flows. A ſmall part of the town, together with a well-built cloiſter, lies on the ſouthern bank of the Syſranka; the reſt, which is meanly built, lies on a flat, along the Krymſa. Here is a decayed wooden fortreſs, a ſtone-built church, and a court-houſe; but, as the place is not well ſup⯑plied, few of the inhabitants are rich. They apply themſelves a good deal to gardening, and have many orchards of apples. They breed a good deal of poul⯑try, and with theſe the Aſtracan ſwan-gooſe. This bird intermixes with the common gooſe, and it's pro⯑geny will couple with themſelves; of courſe, the breed is mixed. The pure baſtards partake of the nature of both the ſwan-gooſe, and common gooſe, as to ſize, ſhape, and colour, and mixing further with common geeſe, the young ones are of a blackiſh hue. All their bills are red, and bent, and have ſometimes a little prominence at the upper end.

Kaſchpur, 7 miles from Syſran. The borough-town of Kaſchpur, through which I paſſed, is ſituated on a [133] high hill, upon an arm of the Wolga. This hill forms part of the Wolga's left ſhore. It is one of the moſt ancient Ruſſian habitations of this diſtrict, and as far as is known, was built before Syſran. It has three churches, and belongs to the chancery of Syſranka. At the ſouth end of this town are ſtill remaining, four decayed towers of the old fortreſs, and at ſome little diſtance there is a watch-tower. In the middle of this town, which lies open and ſcattered, riſes a very high chalk hill, in form of a ſugar loaf, which can be ſeen at a great diſtance. About this hill are ſome old dung⯑hills, mouldered into a rich, black ſoil, which by the addition of chalk, produces a great deal of ſalt-petre. I found whole tracts ſo wholly chryſtaliſed with it, that it looked on the ground like ſnow, and I could have gathered it in handfuls. Indeed, all the land round this place is ſo full of ſalt-petre, that the cattle eat the very earth. Coal is alſo dug in this neighbour⯑hood.

May 10. I intended to leave Syſran on the 9th, but not being able to get horſes, on account of a feſtival on that day, kept in commemoration of St. Nicolas, I delayed my departure till the next day at noon. The heat was inſupportable, but the flying clouds ſeemed to promiſe us ſome refreſhing ſhowers. The air was like a furnace, and the heat ſo intenſe, that the mer⯑cury in the thermometer ſtood in the moſt airy and ſhady place at 105; on the 12th of May, it fell to [134] 93 degrees, and often in the ſun to 85 degrees, a heat ſo great, that it was impoſſible to continue a minute in the ſun-ſhine. All nature was languid and panting, the ſoil on the black heath cracked above an ell deep, and the apertures were ſome inches wide. I left Syſ⯑ran about five in the evening, for it was too ſultry to travel in the day; and, the great ſwarms of ox-flies, (Tabanus bovinus and tropicus,) were very troubleſome and tormenting to the horſes, while the ſun was near the meridian. But, in this ſcorching weather, I took notice, that among the buſhes on the wilds, bloomed the common piony, the fragrant and white dittany, and ſome others.

I was detained at the next village by a melancholy circumſtance; a gun that had been loaded to ſhoot wild-geeſe, accidentally went off, and ſhot my Ger⯑man ſervant in the hip, ſhattering it very much; hu⯑manity therefore required, as he was mortally wound⯑ed, that I ſhould convey him to a place, where he could have ſome aſſiſtance, and as Stawropal was not a great way off, I ſent him there by water upon the Uſſa, and continued my route without him.

At Uſſolie, at the bottom of a mountain, is a con⯑ſiderable ſalt-well, which makes this diſtrict intereſting. The ſpot where the well ſtands, is now overflown with water, by an adjoining river, but there is ſtill to be ſeen ſome remains of the old works, by which the ſalt-water [135] was conveyed into pits. The principal people of this town, in whoſe juriſdiction this well is, ordered it to be filled up with rubbiſh, but the water has puz⯑zled it's way out again, in ſeveral, little veins betwixt the ſtones, and depoſes a whitiſh, ſulphureous ſediment. This water has a nitrous appearance, and a ſtrong, ſul⯑phureous ſmell. There are one or two more of theſe wells, at a little diſtance from the firſt, and certainly iſ⯑ſuing from the ſame mountain.

In the courſe of our journey onward, we paſſed ſome bare hills, where a great number of marmots were every where ſeen ſitting, at the entrance of their habi⯑tations or holes, hiſſing, as if they meant to inſult the paſſengers as they rode by. When we came to the vil⯑lage Scwrjukowa, which takes it's name, (as is often cuſtomary among the Tartars, and people of Tſchu⯑wa,) from him who erected for himſelf the firſt dwel⯑ling there, and is now inhabited by the unconverted people of Tſchuwa; the peaſants were preparing a great ſacrifice for the next day, to ſolicit heaven in their way, for a fertile rain. On account of our arri⯑val it was poſtponed, and however deſirous I was to be preſent at ſuch a ſolemnity, I did not find myſelf diſ⯑poſed to urge them to a compliance, contrary to their inclinations.

May 23d. On the 23d of May, I returned to Sa⯑mara, and Profeſſor Falk with me. His deſign was to [136] have taken another route, but not finding himſelf well, he thought ſtopping at Samara for a few days might recover him. I muſt not omit mentioning here, the Gypſophila panicula, which was now in bloom. This plant grows upon the heaths, and towards autumn, when it begins to fade, forms itſelf into a round ball, which is often broke from the ſtem by a guſt of wind, and rolling over the waſte, often frightens the horſes of travellers.

In the neighbourhood of Samara is a place, to which the ſulphur works have been removed from the diſ⯑trict of Sergieſk, and conſiſted of the manufactory, a wooden compting-houſe, and about forty dwelling-houſes, ſpread out in form of a ſtreet, along the high ſhore of the Wolga, in which dwelt the workmen; but, as theſe works have been diſcontinued, and the workmen are removed, only twelve huts are remaining. This ſulphur manufactory was ſubject to the Woiwods or magiſtrates at Samara, till the year 1720, when it was granted to major Iwan Moloſtof, who was the pro⯑prietor to 1757, when the whole was granted to one Iwan Martof, a merchant of Peterſburgh, whoſe ſon ceaſed working them for five years, and then deſerted them. In this manufactory, twenty-two ſuperinten⯑dants, and 576 workmen, chiefly from Sergieſsk, were employed. Theſe men relieved each other every month, ſo that about 130 worked at one time. The annual produce of this manufactory was full 60,000lb. [137] of brimſtone, and might eaſily have been increaſed to 80,000lb. Thirty-ſix pounds weight ſtands the proprie⯑tor in from fifty to eighty copeks, (100 copeks are in value 4s. 6d. Engliſh,) and conveying it to Moſcow in winter, with hired horſes, coſts him twelve copeks for 36lb.

The loſs of this ſulphur-manufactory to the ſtate, cannot be enough lamented; for, as there is plenty of fire-wood in the place, was it properly conducted, it might turn out to advantage. The buildings of the preſent works, are a melting and refining-houſe. The melting-houſe is about 350 feet long, and contained 51 brick furnaces, ſome of which now are in ruins. The brimſtone ore being firſt bruiſed, is melted in theſe furnaces in earthen pots, from which the pure ſulphur is ſuffered to run into receiving-veſſels below, placed in wooden troughs, filled with water. In order to re⯑fine it, it is melted again in ovens, and afterwards pour⯑ed into moulds, ſtanding in a trough of water. When this manufactory was firſt ſet on foot, the furnaces had no chimnies, the conſequence of which was, that many of the workmen died of ſlow fevers and con⯑ſumptions; but this is not the caſe now.

The famous mountain, in which ſulphur is found in maſſes, riſes almoſt perpendicularly from the ſhore of the Wolga, oppoſite the mouth of the river Sok or Soka, to a height of 700 feet. The lime-mountains near it are [138] ſtill higher, and the valley between them is covered with wood, with villages interſperſed. The cold in this valley is uncommonly great, even in ſummer⯑time, which induces the fiſhermen, who are employed on the river Wolga, to lodge here at night, in order to avoid the flies, which dare not venture into this cold air. I have been told by ſome Caſanians of Gur⯑jef, that going from the mouth of the river Yaik, (or Jaik, for the jod J in Ruſſia, is pronounced like a Y,) along the coaſt of the Caſpian ſea to Aſtrabal, there is, at a place called Priſtan, between Tukkaragan and Tjutkaragan, a deep valley between the mountains, where theſe very Caſanians, who were ſent from on board to fetch water, could not, on account of the in⯑ſupportable cold, ſtand it, but were obliged to return to their ſhip, without their errand.

In order to aſcend this ſulphureous mountain, which is covered with under-wood, I was in many places obliged to creep upon my knees, no path having been cleared away; and it was ſo exceedingly ſteep, that I was often forced to climb my way. It is inconceiva⯑ble, that after working many years here, the people have not opened a horſe-way, and rendered the path up it eaſy, by gentle windings. In which caſe, they might bring the ſulphur down on horſes; whereas, it is now attended with a great deal of labour, the men carrying down the ſtone in maſſes of 100 pounds weight, upon their ſhoulders. And yet, though the [139] way up and down is ſteep and rocky, and dangerous to a perſon paſſing it, without a load, I did not hear of any accident happening to the men. The ſulphur in this mountain lies very deep. There is one opening on the top above 70 feet wide, and upwards of 40 feet deep. They have worked ten years in this pit, and the ſulphur vein does not ſeem near exhauſted. Other parts of the mountain conſiſt of lime-ſtone, ſtucco, and Muſcovy talc. There are ſprings on it uncom⯑monly ſulphureous, but clear, and ice and ſnow dwell here the whole year. Of the under-wood growing on it, I ſaw, the Ruſſian plane-tree, the buck-thorn, (Rhamnus catharticus and Alpinus,) and the following plants; the hellebore, (Helleborine,) in quantities; the lady's ſlipper, (calceolus;) the wind-flower, (Centaurea Moſchata; the laſerwort, (Laſerpitium trilobum;) the agaric, (Amanta cervaria;) the chichling vetch, (La⯑thyris;) and the vetch, (vicia piſiformis;) and, alſo the ſtock gilly-flower, (Cheiranthus eryſimoides.) Upon the latter were great ſwarms of beautiful inſects, and butterflies. The ſtalks of the Cervaria ſent forth here a ſweet, aromatic gum, that melted in the mouth, which they did not do in any other part of the heath.

Samara, May 30. The weather was now warm, and the ox-fly very troubleſome. Here were ſuch ſwarms alſo of a kind of gnat, that often darkened the ſky, and bit us ſo deep, as to leave the wounds bleeding. The inhabitants have no other method of defending [140] their faces from this pernicious inſect, than by drawing over their head a large net-cap, ſoaked in birch-oil. Every perſon that goes out of town, provides himſelf with ſuch a cap. Though this inſect bites till the blood runs, it happily gives no pain. On cattle and on birds, it gets in among the hair and feathers, and runs about like a louſe. This inſect, called the Moſ⯑kara, leaves them about the end of June; but, ano⯑ther very troubleſome one comes in it's room; this is a kind of waſp, almoſt inviſible, (tipula ſolſtitialis,) which does not ſting, but flys about in ſuch ſwarms, that a perſon cannot ſtand ſtill a moment, without having his mouth, noſe and eyes full of them. They call this inſect Kochra, and defend themſelves from it by large nets, greaſed with hog's-lard. Here alſo grows, in buſhy places, the campion, (Lychnis Chalcedo⯑nica,) which the common people call cuckow-ſoap, and uſe it to waſh their hands and linen.

I ſent part of my attendants on before me with the heavy baggage, from Samara acroſs the Kalmuc waſtes to the river Jaik, ſtopping to take a further view of this diſtrict myſelf, before I left it. I followed them however, on the 11th of June, but before I had got half way to the place I ordered them to, a new acci⯑dent interrupted my progreſs. The waggon, in which ſome perſons I had taken as companions, rode, was overthrown from a height, and two of my people were hurt; one was exceedingly bruiſed on the hip, and my [141] waggoner had his right hand ſhattered. I ſent theſe men back to Samara, and proceeded with the reſt to Orenburg, paſſing through Alexieffkoi, inhabited by invalid ſoldiers and Caſanian tradeſmen and farmers. From this place to the town of Kaſakian, the road lies ſtraight, but there are no regular way-houſes for ac⯑commodation, a few cottages only excepted, ſcattered here and there, but where we could get hay and wa⯑ter. The ſummer-road to Orenburg from Alexieffkoi, is over the hilly or left ſide of the river Samara; but in winter, between the Samara and Kinel, through al⯑ternate vallies and hills, for the ſpace of ſeventy miles. I went the winter-road, and fancy can ſcarce paint a prettier diſtrict; the moſt beautiful woods of aſps and birch, relieved, by turns, with green hills and luxuri⯑ant meadows. No country ſurely deſerves cultivation more than along the river Samara, there being plenty of arable land, no want of wood, and great extent of very rich and beautiful meadow. Here are a great many wild roe-deer without tails, (Cervus pygargus,) and elks which rove about, as far as the river Samara.

The elk in winter, moſtly feeds on the young twigs and the bark of the aſp and poplar-trees, but in ſum⯑mer-time, ſeeks it's protection and nouriſhment in the ſteps or uninhabited waſtes. The roe is more found on the hilly diſtricts, the wind carrying off the ſnow quicker in winter, than in the low-grounds, and thus giving it an opportunity to feed more plentifully. The [142] Coſſacks kill a great deal of this game, and the chief ſeaſon of hunting it is in March, the ſun then having ſufficient power to melt the ſurface of the ſnow into a cruſt, on which they can more readily come up with them in their ſnow-ſcates, a contrivance uſed by the Lap⯑landers alſo; whereas, the feet of theſe animals break through the ſnow as they run, and are thereby impeded in their courſe. They are tracked and driven into val⯑lies, where the ſnow lies many feet deep, and are thus brought within reach of a gun, or are more cloſely purſued and killed with a lance. The roe, being a tender-footed animal, cannot run far; but the elk, which is hunted by dogs, will often kill a dog by a kick. The roe-buck throws off his heavy horns in November after rutting time, and gets new ones in ſpring. The female roe, commonly brings forth two young ones about the month of April; her horns are nearly like thoſe of the buck, only more grown in ſpring, but are yet rough and ſoft. Their ſkins are ſold very cheap. The ſkin of the elk is worth about 4s. 6d. and their meat fetches but a low price.

Beſides the above animals, they have, farther along the Samara, great plenty of very fine ermines, and a middle-ſized marten, with a bright, yellow neck. There are alſo upon the ſteps or wilds, ſome few bea⯑vers or otters, as alſo foxes, and thoſe Coſſacks who are fond of hunting, will, in autumn, lie for ſome time abroad on theſe ſteps, to watch for them. Foxes are [143] leſs valuable, the further ſouth they are found up the Samara, till they degenerate into thoſe grey, ſtep foxes, which the Kirguiſians bring here to barter or truck with the Kalmucks. The ſquirrel is rarely ſeen here; but is much ſought after, on account of it's fur, which is of a whitiſh colour.

The country along the river Kinel, is pleaſant and varied. The large village Tſcheraſk, has been built ſince the year 1744, by a colony from Little Ruſſia, who had formerly erected many dwelling places on ſpots about the boundary, at the river Jaik, but were often plundered by Kirguiſian robbers. The inhabitants of this new flouriſhing place, live after their own country faſhion; they have neat houſes with chimnies, good ovens, apply themſelves chiefly to the cultivati⯑on of tobacco and breeding of cattle, and live in abundant ſprightlineſs and freedom. They are go⯑verned by an officer choſen from among themſelves, and confirmed by the regency of Stawropal, whom they call Ataman, and who has an aſſiſtant under him, called Jeſſaul. Their dreſs is like that of the Koſſacks or Polanders. The women wear nothing in ſummer but a ſhirt, worked in the neck with needle-work, and inſtead of a petticoat, they wear round the waiſt, a piece of calimanco, plaided with various colours, and wo⯑ven by themſelves, very much like the Scotch plaid. They wear on the head ſmall caps of varied coloured ſtuff, bound on with ſtrings, whoſe ends are worked [144] with the needle, and hang down behind. Girls let not their hair hang down as do the Ruſſians, but braid it into treſſes, wind it round their heads, and bind it in front with a party-coloured band, ornamented with co⯑ral beads, &c. Their method of courting, is not ex⯑actly like that of the highlanders of Frieſland, but ve⯑ry ſimilar to it, and they have many ceremonies ſimilar to thoſe of the Tartars. A courtſhip continues about two years, during the firſt year of which, the young man is not ſuffered even to touch his ſweetheart. On the day of marriage, a kind of flag is carried after the bride on her return from church, made of black or red ſtuff, as the bridegroom ſhall think proper, and which he makes choice of, to acquaint the world with her conduct, it being a ſignal to ſay, whether ſhe has acted to his liking or not, during the laſt year of their courtſhip, when he is entitled to take more liberties.

For the purpoſe of ſheltering and feeding their cattle, they erect ſheds or ſtalls here and there, on the waſtes. Their chief breed is horned cattle, and they generally plough their land with oxen, though many of the farmers poſſeſs from twenty to thirty horſes. Their flocks of ſheep are numerous. Many keep to to the number of four hundred, but they do not con⯑ſider their wool as the beſt, it being rather long and coarſe. They do not ſuffer the ram to be with the ewes till after St. Peter's-day, which in the Ruſſian Ca⯑lendar is at the end of June, a good cuſtom to prevent [145] the lambs being dropped too early. They are careful to keep their cattle clean, and ſpread hay beneath the ſheep in ſtalls, to prevent any injury to the wool, which will fetch twelve or thirteen ſhillings a pud, that is 36lb. They never have any murrain among their cat⯑tle; the only diſtemper is a kind of itch, which they cure with tobacco water, and as a remedy for maggots in ſheep, they uſe the agrimony.

The cultivation of tobacco is the employment of the women; who ſow alſo large quantities of vegeta⯑bles for their own uſe. But, want of rain this year, had deſtroyed not only their garden-ſtuff, but all ſorts of corn.

From the middle of June to the middle of July, women and children are buſied before harveſt, in ga⯑thering that kind of cochineal, called Coccus Polonicus. They find this inſect chiefly on dry, barren ſoils, about the root of the common ſtrawberry and the cinque-foil, (Potentilla reptans.) In Little Ruſſia, they are ſaid to collect them from a plant called Smolka, which, accord⯑ing to the common opinion, is the St. John's wort. They cut out theſe plants with a knife, and open the little, blue bliſters which hang on the uppermoſt part of the plant, in which, the inſect is ſaid to be contained. There are two or three ſuch bliſters on a plant. The inſect comes to perfection, ſooner or later in the month of June; and in July, creeps out. This plant is well [146] known to the women. But they prefer the inſect when it is juſt ready to leave the plant, in preference to thoſe in a leſs perfect ſtate, as it yields a better and a bright⯑er colour. There is a ſaying among them, that all the eloped inſects of a whole diſtrict, aſſemble them⯑ſelves on one buſh, on a certain day, and that thoſe who go out earlieſt in the morning, on the Caſanian feaſt-day, (June 8th,) will ſurely meet with them. The cochineal when gathered, is cleared, through a ſieve, from the earth that hangs about it, dried in a pan over a ſlow fire or in an oven, and then put away in ſome dry place. Owing to the great trouble in col⯑lecting them, they never ſearch for more than they want for their own uſe, in order to dye their girdles or ſome woollen yarn, which they uſe as an ornament to their dreſs. They ſoak this yarn twenty-four hours in a very ſour decoction, in which allum is mixed, letting it ſtand all this time in an oven; after this, it is wrung and dyed. This done, the cochineal is bruiſed in a pot, boiled up with water, and when all the co⯑lour is extracted, it is ſtrained, and the yarn boiled in it. With one handful of cochineal, they dye about a pound weight of wool; but this colour does not look better than that prepared from the marjoram, (Origa⯑num;) it is preferred only, becauſe it fades leſs.

In this high and wild country, there are Marmotes in plenty, many bears, inhabiting the buſhy vales, buſ⯑tards and cranes, and in the rivers, tortoiſes.

[147]On the boundary of Samara there are ſeveral forts, each garriſoned with about thirty invalids, and inhabi⯑ted by Coſſacks, with ſome pieces of iron ordnance. At one of the forts, that of Buſuluzkaja, ſituated near the brook of the ſame name, the commanding-officer of the line or boundary has a very good houſe, and the houſes of the Coſſacks and ſoldiers, form four croſs ſtreets, as they do in the other forts, the church, ſtand⯑ing in the center, in a kind of ſquare. Among the Coſſacks here ſettled are many Tartars, who hunt the mountains and deſarts, and kill wild horſes for food. Theſe are not the natural produce of the country, but the progeny of ſome tame horſes that have run away from their owners. They perfectly reſemble the horſes of Little Ruſſia, except, that their heads are thicker, the ears more pointed, and the noſe ſhort, upſtanding manes, and ſhort tails. The moſt common colour is a fallow brown; though there are ſome grey, and ſome of a deep brown, but no pie-bald or black. They go about in herds from five to twenty, conſiſting of mares, colts, and one ſtallion. When the ſtallion-colts grow big, the old horſe drives them from the herd, and they are ſeen to follow the herd at a diſtance, till they are old and ſtrong enough to become the ſire of a herd themſelves. They are ſaid to ſcent a man at the diſ⯑tance of near a mile, if the wind ſets in their favour, and will fly from their purſuer; but, in ſummer-time, when they are tormented by the flies, they are eaſily caught. They catch wild ſtallions by leading out a [148] mare, which entices them within ſhot. In the fort where I was, they had a wild colt, but he being too fierce to be broke in, they got rid of him. He ſeemed to me to have uncommon ſtrength.

There were formerly in this diſtrict, a great many beavers, otters, and wild-boars; but they have been extirpated by the Coſſacks, who are great hunters. Badgers there are in plenty, bears and elks. Laſt ſpring, the country was over-run with antilopes, though this animal had not been ſeen here for many years before. The dryneſs of the ſeaſon having brought them here in large herds or flocks, from the ſouthern parts. They ventured even into the low grounds, and meadows. As this animal caſts it's young in the be⯑ginning of May, we ſaw ſome young ones, and, like lambs, found they were ſcarce able to walk for ſome days after they were dropped. Some of theſe have been taken, brought up with milk, and rendered ſo tame, as to follow their owner about like a dog, anſwer to a name, and ſwim through waters after him. As they grow older, they will ſearch for their food near the houſe where they have been fed, and if ſuffered to go at large, will not wander far from the village, but re⯑turn at night. I could not have believed this, had I not been an eye-witneſs of the fact. Theſe tame-bred antilopes, which reſemble a ſhe-goat, are not in the leaſt afraid of dogs, nor will dogs moleſt them, any more than other domeſtic animals. Their fleſh, if not [149] above one year old, would be preferable to that of the roe, if it did not ſmell ſo ſtrong of wormwood, which is their favourite food; yet this ſcent, when the meat is roaſted and cold, goes off. The old ones are very diſguſtful, on account of their backs being covered with ſores, ariſing from maggots, almoſt as thick as one's finger, depoſited in their ſkin in an embryo ſtate, by a peculiar ſpecies of fly; (Oeſtrus antilopum,) ſo that there is ſcarce a ſpot to be found on their backs, which is not infected.

The mountains in this diſtrict are frequented by abundance of eagles and other birds of prey; I ſaw here the yellow-headed, black eagle. The country people will often take the eagles from their neſts, built on high trees, bring them up and ſell them to the Kir⯑guiſians, at a very good price. Here is alſo a very rare bird, (Pratincola Cram.) which feeds upon graſs-hop⯑pers, and other inſects. When they ſoar, they make a ſhrilling noiſe. Some have ridiculouſly thought this bird a ſpecies of ſwallow, but there is in reality no pre⯑tence for this. His bill is like that of the cuckow, he has a white ſtripe from the eye about the throat, and his flight and flying features, are like thoſe of the ſea-ſwallow, (Sterna,) but his feet like that of the curlew.

Here are many tumuli throughout this country, but not raiſed very high above the ground. Some Coſ⯑ſacks, who make it their buſineſs to open theſe graves, [150] aſſured me, they found ſome uncommonly large hu⯑man bones in them; for example, a ſhin-bone, that; ſet up againſt the leg of a full-grown perſon, reached higher than the knee. It is ſaid, that a Kalmuck once out on a ſhooting party, found, laying in one of theſe tumuli, a tranſparent well-poliſhed ſtone ſet in ſilver, which was ſold by a third perſon, into whoſe hands it fell, for above 100 rubles, each ruble 4s. 6d. Engliſh. All the arrows, arms, and other inſtruments, found in theſe graves, are made of copper. Sometimes they find gold, and one of the Coſſacks of Tozkaja, found upon a corpſe a few years ſince, a golden neck-ring.

Sorotſchinſkaja, is, of all the forts erected on the Samarian line or boundary, the moſt conſiderable and beſt inhabited. It has a ditch, and a breaſt-work with chevaux-de-frize in a regular form, with ſome wood⯑en towers. Beſides many good houſes belonging to the Coſſacks, the commanding officer has a hotel, and here is alſo a court-houſe. The commander-in-chief of the whole Samarian line, dwelt here formerly. Theſe laſt two buildings, and a wooden church, ſtand in the ſquare and open part of the fort, and here is a good bridge built over the Samara. The river is very inconſiderable, and is ſo ſhallow and ſerpentine, that it is ſcarcely conceivable how barges could come up to this fortreſs from Orenburg; and that they did is inconteſtible, from the many anchors found here.

[151]In my way on, at one of the redoubts, I was told, I had paſſed a tumulus recently opened, on which there ſtood erected a ſtone, having the face of a man cut on it, and another lying, with the ſhape of a man en⯑graved on it. This intelligence excited my curioſity, and made me deſirous of examining further into it. I therefore procured a number of workmen with proper tools, and went to this place, at the diſtance of 19 miles, on the 20th of June.

The opened tumulus on which the ſtones had lain, is one of the moſt conſiderable ones in the whole diſ⯑trict; is near the river Samara, and juſt oppoſite the higheſt of all the mountains ſeen on the oppoſite ſide of the water. They had dug to the depth of ten feet and a half, which was the exact height the hill was raiſed from the ground; and it is ſaid, they found in it ſome valuable things. I found myſelf, in the ground that was thrown up, a little piece of poliſhed and carved mother-of-pearl, which ſeemed not the leaſt decayed, and I found alſo, a great many human and marmot bones. Within the cave was laid a large flat, rock-ſtone, which probably had covered the body. The ſtone which I was told lay on the ſurface, and on which was engraved or cut, the complete figure of a man, was broken into ſmall pieces, and from what I could ſee of it, appeared to be of a very ſoft, ſandy na⯑ture, of which, a great variety is dug from an adja⯑cent mountain; but the other ſtone, which ſtood at the [152] eaſt end upright, is a hard and nearly triangular flat piece of rock, about four ſpans and a half in height, and it's upper angle apparently bearing ſome rough touches of a chizel, ſhaping out the face of a man.

In theſe tumuli are found bad iron-work, points of arrows, and ſteels to ſtrike fire with, and in ſome, heads of horſes. They told me, that the largeſt tumuli con⯑tain no valuable articles, ſuch things being only found in the ſmaller ones. The reaſon perhaps is, that the ſmaller tumuli were the graves of women, to whom ſome ornaments were ſacrificed; whereas, the higher tumuli ſeem either to have belonged to the Tartars of Nagaja, or to the Kirguiſians, as their preſent tombs much reſemble theſe. But thoſe that are lined with brick, as many are, probably belonged to ſome older nation.

About thirty-ſix miles ſhort of Orenburg, is the fortreſs Taliſtſchewa, ſituated on a conſiderable height, where the river Kamyſch Samara falls into the Jaik. It is a regular ſquare, walled with timber, with che⯑vaux-de-frize and wooden batteries, and a double church, one for the ſummer, and a ſmaller one, with fire-places, for the winter, garriſoned by a party of dragoons, and ſettled by Coſſacks. Here are good houſes belonging to the officers, and about 200 wood⯑en dwellings; conſequently, next to Orenburg, this may be conſidered as one of the greateſt and moſt populous [153] places of the Jaikian line. Here reſide alſo the of⯑ficers of the troops quartered in other forts, and the commanders-in-chief of the diſtrict. I ſaw the troops exerciſed, and was preſent at ſome of their amuſe⯑ments, in company with the commanding officer. The Kalmucks entertained us firſt with a concert, in their own way; a tolerable, good voice ſung various Kalmuc love-ſongs, conſiſting of diſtorted and mournful tones and diſſonances. Two others accompanied the voice, one with a Turkiſh rebeck with four ſtrings, the other with a remarkable kind of flute, made of the dry and hollow ſtalk of the American ſun-flower, (Umbellata,) covered with a gut. It had three holes at the ſmall end, which were ſtopped occaſionally, with three fingers of one hand; whilſt the other hand, ac⯑cording to the tune, ſtopped the bottom of the flute or pipe. The upper-end or orifice, without any mouth-piece, is applied to the upper teeth, and cloſed be⯑tween the upper lip and the tongue. It requires an extraordinary exertion of the voice, to produce ſounds upon ſuch a pipe; but, in the hands of a good player it reſembles a fife. The Kalmucks call it Zurr, the Tartars Kurah, and the Coſſacks of Jaik, who alſo make uſe of it, give it the name of Tſchibuiſga. The rebeck is called Biwa by the Kalmucks, and has no other bottom than a hollow, wooden cylinder, over which is ſtretched a dryed bladder, as parchment over a drum. On this a bridge is fixed, and over this four lengths of cat-gut are ſtrained on a long handle. [154] It is played with a bow, on which two rows of horſe⯑hair are ſtrained. Theſe paſs through the ſtrings in ſuch a manner, as to ſound two in uniſon, at the ſame draw of the bow. Beſides the above inſtruments, the Kalmucks have a two-ſtringed baſe-viol, a harp like a dulcimer, and a large jews-harp, which make up their baſe.

Next, ſeveral couples of young lads gave us a ſpe⯑cimen of their art in wreſtling. When at this ſport, they tuck up their under-robes round their waiſt, and ſtrive to throw each other down, and are very clever at this exerciſe. They then ſhot at a mark with arrows, and next into the air; and concluded their diverſions with a game at cheſs, wherein they followed all the cuſtomary rules, except advancing at the beginning with three men, inſtead of one.

The Baſkirs could amuſe us only with arrow-ſhoot⯑ing and Tartarian dances. But what was remarkable, a man hoary with age, and having only two teeth in his mouth, played very maſterly on the above-men⯑tioned flute, and was even ſo expert as to play two tunes at once. The ſongs of the Tartars, compared with Kalmuck melody, were as the Italian muſic is to the French, and expreſſed generally ſomething warlike and manly. The Tartarian dances conſiſt in a tranſ⯑poſition of the feet, and ſome very voluptuous atti⯑tudes [155] and motions of the body and limbs, accompa⯑nied with hiſſing and clapping of hands.

Here I met with a plant which I never ſaw any de⯑ſcription of, nor ever met with, any where elſe. The Prenanthes hiſpida. The pheaſant is a bird not uncommon here, and it's feathers are worn as an orna⯑ment in the cap.

June 30. On the 30th of June, I purſued my jour⯑ney to Orenburg, and was obliged to be eſcorted by relieves of Coſſacks, or ſome other light troops, from poſt to poſt, to be ſafe againſt the Kirguiſian plunderers, and it was at this ſeaſon the more neceſſary, becauſe, for want of ſufficient paſture at home, they had brought their cattle to paſture here, and had taken up their quarters in this diſtrict.

On the firſt of July, I had about twelve miles to travel to Orenburg, and ſet out for that place in the morning. The deſcription of this beautiful city and it's environs, and alſo of it's public buildings, has been ſo amply and ably ſet forth already, that was I to ſay any thing of it, I ſhould only be a copyiſt. I will, however, venture to ſay from myſelf, that the ſitua⯑tion of this place is very advantageous for Aſiatic com⯑merce. They endeavour to make it the centre of it, and it is perfectly adapted to that end, and to be the reſidence of wealthy merchants, and the eſtabliſhment [156] of ſuch manufactures, as the eaſtern nations are moſt in want of. Was ſuch a plan ſet on foot, Orenburg would inconteſtibly become one of the moſt flouriſhing and important provincial cities, of the whole Ruſſian Empire. Yet the profitable trade of this place is chiefly carried on by adventurers from the moſt diſtant parts of the empire, who, after having bartered their goods or ſold them, return with their gain to their reſpective countries. Theſe people come annually in great caravans, bringing with them foreign goods of all kinds, which this place itſelf and it's environs would produce, if manufactories were erected, and properly conducted.

The trade of this city conſiſts now in the ſale of all ſorts of woollen cloths, eſpecially red and ſcarlet, vel⯑vet, blue and white linens, hides, copper and iron kettles, chiefly brought here from the moſt diſtant ma⯑nufactories of Siberia; all ſorts of ornaments for dreſs of tin and iron, needles, thimbles, glaſs and coral beads, and other little matters requiſite for cloathing, and for the harneſs of horſes. Alſo all materials for dying, ſuch as indigo, woad, cochineal, allum, vitri⯑ol, likewiſe ſugar, and ſome kinds of furs, particular⯑ly beaver and otter fur. Beſides theſe things, the Kirguiſians purchaſe of the Ruſſian merchants a great deal of cotton ſtuffs, and barter it to the Bucharians for furs; of courſe, the cotton-manufactories of this country are very profitable, and bring in a large reve⯑nue [157] to the empire, though the Ruſſians purchaſe the materials of which the cotton is made, of the Bucha⯑rians and the people of Chiwinza. I am well aſſured, that there are many diſtricts in the ſouthern parts of Ruſſia, where the cotton-plant thrives well, and it might therefore be an inland production. It has not indeed thriven in the diſtricts of Orenburg and the Sakmara; the Tartars having made an unſucceſsful trial of it. But this is owing to the great change from heat to cold, occaſioned by the adjacent mountains, to the poorneſs of the ſoil, and the dryneſs of the land. Were ſuch attempts made on the rivers Samara, Motſ⯑cha, Irgis, and ſome of the lower diſtricts of the Wol⯑ga, they would be attended with ſucceſs.

The principal articles which the Aſiatic merchants, who come here in caravans, barter for the above-men⯑tioned goods, are gold and ſilver, chiefly in Perſian coin and Rupees, gold-duſt, ſome lapis-lazuli, rubies and other precious ſtones; alſo a great deal of raw and ſpun cotton, a kind of finer Indian callico, than what is ge⯑neral, ready-made gowns of various goodneſs; black and grey, fine, Bucharian lamb-ſkins, which are ſold at a great price, two kinds of wild cat-ſkins, ſpotted like a tyger's, tygers ſkins, &c. Sometimes the Bucharians will bring lumps of ſaltpetre, which is found in maſſes in ſuch parts of their country as were the ſcite of old towns and burial-places. Their commerce now, in raw ſilk, is very low, and all kind of finer Indian mer⯑chandize [158] is brought but ſparingly, either becauſe there are not ſufficient buyers among the Ruſſian merchants, or becauſe the Bucharians, as they themſelves acknow⯑ledge, could not get ſuch a price for them as would be adequate to the expence of bringing them. It is alſo to be conſidered, that the northern part of India does not produce ſuch rich articles as are manufactured in the warmer climes which lie near the Indian ocean; ſo that were the Bucharians ever ſo willing to bring them, they could not expect to rival the ſea-trade in ſuch kind of merchandize.

But, among the Bucharian trafic, I muſt not omit to mention ſuch articles as relate to natural hiſtory.— They bring then ſeveral fruits of their own country, as dried, wild apricots and peaches, a kind of ſmall cur⯑rants, which have either a very large kernel or none at all; nuts of the ſpecies of the beech-tree; worm-ſeed, which they ſay they get from India, and which, if thrown into canals in gardens and plantations, will de⯑ſtroy particular worms and catipillars. They bring al⯑ſo ſeed of melons, water-melons and wild Bucharian barley. (Holcus Saccharatus).

There is no branch of the Bucharian trade more im⯑portant, or any that would turn out more advantageous to the ſtate, by encreaſing the Ruſſian manufactories, than the importation of raw-goods; among which, the ſilk-trade has been but little encouraged. Camel's [159] hair would be another rich article of commerce, as it might not only be manufactured at home, but be ex⯑ported: and it can be purchaſed of the Kalmucks and Kirguiſians, at the cheap rate from two ſhillings Eng⯑liſh to eleven ſhillings, for 36 pounds weight.

Bartering with the Kirguiſians for cattle, is alſo a lu⯑crative branch of commerce. Scarce a year paſſes but they ſell to the number of from 40, to 60,000 ſheep, and about 10,000 horſes. The latter are conveyed into Ruſſia; but the ſheep are moſtly killed in and about Orenburg, and the towns ſituated on the Wolga. The fat is tranſported to the ſea-ports of the empire, where it is ſold for very little money, under the deno⯑mination of Ruſſian tallow. Mutton therefore is to be had at Orenburg, in the ſummer-time, for little or nothing, as the dealers are contented with the gain they get from the fat of the tail only of a Kirguiſian ſheep, which weighs ſometimes about 36 pounds, and after being melted down, will yield thirty pounds and up⯑wards of tallow.

Beſides this great quantity of large and ſmall cattle, the Kirguiſians bring to market a great number of com⯑mon furs, wolves-ſkins, foxes, wild-cat ſkins, and many ſlunk lamb-ſkins. The Kirguiſians alſo ſell great variety of felt-covers and carpets, which they make of ſheeps-wool, elegant and of various colours. As theſe people are but little ſkilled in commerce, they truck [160] them away for Ruſſian commodities of ſmall value, though they are now daily improving in cunning and prudence.

There is brought to market at Orenburg, the gold eagle, (Falco Chryſatus,) of which the Kirguifians are very fond, purchaſing them for hunting of wolves, foxes, and antelopes. There is a certain token in the motion of this bird, by which they judge of it's good⯑neſs and docility, for they are not all adapted to the chace. A Kirguiſian will ſometimes give an excellent horſe for one of theſe birds; when for another, he would not give even a ſheep-ſkin, which among them is one of their ſmalleſt coins. To judge then of a gold eagle, they will often ſit a great while looking at it. I muſt alſo mention, that the Kalmucks and Baſchirs breed a great many camels, which they ſell at Orenburg to the Bucharians, who commonly leave this city with much greater loads than they bring. The Bucharians bring their goods on the backs of lit⯑tle aſſes, and afterwards try to diſpoſe of them, but the people here do not like them, nor has this animal or the mule, been ever bred in Ruſſia.

July 3. On the 3d of July, I had the pleaſure of going to, and inſpecting the ſalt-works of Ilezkaja, 50 miles off, in company with his Excellency Major Ge⯑neral Reinſdorff, the preſent governor of Orenburg, eſcorted with a ſtrong guard of Coſſacks, relieved [161] from poſt to poſt. To go to this place, we croſs a bridge of boats, which connects the city of Orenburg, with the great and well-built market-place. All the heath from Orenburg, for a diſtance of 17 miles, had been wantonly fired by the Kirguiſians, which is too often done in this wild country, and prevented me finding even a ſingle root of that curious plant, which has been deſcribed by Dr. Rinder, and named from him.

Theſe ſalt-works have a ſmall fortreſs to defend them, garriſoned by Coſſacks. The town is inhabited by thirty ſuperintendants over an exiled people, by whom rock-ſalt is here dug, at the expence of the crown. There is one captain who preſides over the works, and another who commands the fort.

About 280 feet ſouth-eaſt of this fort, riſes a bare and white ſtucco mountain, in form of a ſugar-loaf, full of clefts, and is called the watch-mountain, from having a guard of ſoldiers ſtationed on the top of it, commanding a view over a conſiderable part of the country. On the top is a cleft, which once was very deep, but is now partly filled up. The Kirguiſians conſider this mountain as divine, and uſed formerly to throw various furs and other trifles into the cleft, by way of vow or ſacrifice. Even to this day, they come round the hill at certain times, in ſolemn proceſſion, and ſay their prayers, kneeling; having firſt bathed and [162] cleaned themſelves in the adjacent pools. It is related, that before the pit or cleft was filled up, ſome covet⯑ous perſon in hopes of finding treaſure, made a deſcent into it, and found the cold inſupportable.

Between the watch-mountain and the fort, lies the ſalt-vein; it's greateſt diameter is about 600 fathoms, (each fathom ſeven feet Engliſh,) and the croſs dia⯑meter 550. To get at the rock-ſalt, they dig ſome⯑times three or four fathoms deep, but in ſome places it lies ſo high, that we may touch the ſolid ſalt with a dagger, or a ram-rod. There are a great many freſh⯑water ſprings about this place, which ſeem to run all to this ſalt-rock, and in ſuch quantities, as ſometimes to interrupt the working it.

Salt-mines. The nature both of the ſalt, and the ground which covers it, may be beſt ſeen in that large and open mine, where they are digging at preſent, and have ſo done, for many years paſt. This mine, down⯑wards from the watch-mountain, including all it's windings, is about 300 fathoms. The pit, or open part at top, is now above ſixty fathoms long, and in ſome places, from nine to ten fathoms broad, and the ſalt has been dug out in places, to the depth of three fa⯑thoms; but, by the orders of General Reinſdorff, they are now going deeper. They had no method of lading out the water from this mine, but by pails, his excel⯑lency [163] has, however, had a depending part dug, and the water is from thence worked out by a machine.

The preſent method of digging the ſalt, is as fol⯑lows: they firſt dig narrow croſs-drains with pick-axes, to a certain depth, ſo as to leave a block of ſalt, about an ell broad, and an ell and a half to two fathoms long, between the channels, and this block is raiſed by levers, wedges, and breakers.

Over the pure and ſolid rock-ſalt, in it's whole ex⯑tent, is nothing but a miry land, conſiſting of a coarſe yellow quick-ſand, lying in heaps, from two to three fathoms high. Near the bed of ſalt, the ſand is pe⯑netrated with ſalt water, and if dried, becomes hard as ſtone. The vein of ſalt does not ſeem to lie horizon⯑tally, but to wave, being in ſome places deeper, in others ſhallower.

How deep theſe mines run, is not known with any certainty, they are working now only on the ſurface. The mountain-borer, which I directed to be applied, (but with great labour,) could not be worked down more than half an ell a day, into the ſolid rock. It has been pierced in autumn, to the depth of rather better than twenty ells, but it could be bored no far⯑ther, being ſtopped by a black, impenetrable ſtone. In a ſhaft, at ſome little diſtance from the great ſalt-pit, they met with a blackiſh marle, (at the depth of three [164] fathoms,) ſo ſolid, that it could not be removed with ſpades.

The ſalt is generally very pure, ſolid, and of a white colour, and breaks, when knocked to pieces, in little ſquare lumps, like dice. It diſſolves in water rather ſlower than ſea-ſalt, but has been found not ſo ſtrong to ſalt meat with. Some maſſes of about 36lb. weight, are here and there found as clear and tranſparent as chryſtal, and capable of being worked into boxes, and other toys.

Here are a great many ſalt-pools near this ſpot, in which the Kirguiſians occaſionally bathe, for the cure of certain diſorders. The water is ſo powerful, that a man who goes into it breaſt-high, is lifted up, and lies upon the ſurface like a plank. It is a common ſaying, that the water in theſe pits is at certain times, during the cold weather in autumn, cold on the ſur⯑face, but near the bottom ſo warm, and ſometimes ſo hot, as not to bear the hand in it, but I could find no difference in any I felt, which during cloudy and cool weather, was five degrees colder than the air. If this report be true, I ſhould ſuppoſe, that the ſalt cruſt covering the bottom of the pool, attracts the ſun's heat like a burning-glaſs, and thus renders the water near it hot. Admitting this to be the caſe, the rea⯑ſon why I could diſcover no difference was, that the [165] ſun had not ſhone, when I was there, for ſeveral days. I don't know of any reaſon more probable.

The moſt common plant growing here is, the ſalt-wort, (Salicornia herbacea,) which, being pickled with ſpice and vinegar, is a very palatable ſauce. The plantain, (Plantago Salſa,) growing on this land, takes on a very pale red-colour, and is very ſalt to the taſte. I ſhould ſuppoſe, that from this and other ſalt-plants, the ſalt [alkali, (ſoda) might be prepared: but, in a chemical proceſs on the ſalt-wort, at Orenburg, it was found to contain too much culinary ſalt. Sixty or ſeventy pound weight of this plant dried, yielded twenty pounds of ſalt-aſhes. I ſhall ſhew hereafter, that the Ruſſians, prepare and export great quantities of alkali, but yet none from this plant.

The ſalt of Ilezkaja, is moſtly dug in ſummer⯑time, the workmen are paid at the rate of half a co⯑pec, for 36lb. weight. There were now laying before the pit many ton weight of ſalt, ready to be conveyed away. Winter is the ſeaſon of tranſporting it, which is done by the Baſkirs and vagaband peaſants, who have wandered from different provinces of the Empire, and are ſettled in the diſtrict of Orenburg. The price of tranſport from the mine to the ſalt-office, at the river Aſchkader, is paid at the rate of ſix copecs or a⯑bout 3d. Engliſh, per pud, (each pud 36lb. Engliſh.) Thence it is conveyed in barges on the rivers Belaja, [166] Kama, and Wolga. In this way did they tranſport throughout the Empire, in the courſe of the laſt year, above a million of puds, and the quantity conveyed away muſt have been conſiderably encreaſed, ſince that time, by the preſent, well-directed regulations; two new ſalt-offices having been erected, one upon the ri⯑ver Ik, and the other on the Samara.

Before I leave this remarkable ſpot, I muſt mention, that notwithſtanding the ſaltneſs of the ſoil, in one of the gardens here, not only divers ſorts of vegetables ſeemed to thrive well, but the tobacco plant, raiſed from Virginia ſeed, came on well, and had a fine ſmell; which leaves not the leaſt doubt, but that tobacco might be raiſed with great ſucceſs, on the ſalt heaths, between the rivers Jaik and Wolga. It ought alſo to be noticed, that even in this ſalt diſtrict, as alſo upon the whole ſouthern ſtep or heath about the river Jaik, the garden tulip, (Tulipa Geſneri,) with yel⯑low and red cups, is every where ſeen. They are ra⯑ther ſmaller than our European ones, yet have been known to encreaſe in their ſize conſiderably, by re⯑moving them into good garden ſoil.

Before I quit Orenburg, I will take notice of a neighbouring copper-mine. Though I did not ſee it myſelf, I am able to deſcribe it, from the accounts I received. This mine is not far from Orenburg, and formerly belonged to Count Alexander Schuwalof, who [167] has ſince ſold it, with ſome other lands, &c. It has not for eight years been worked, any thing worth men⯑tioning. To protect the workmen from the Kirguiſi⯑ans, on one of whoſe heaths it ſtands, the place is de⯑fended by an intrenchment, and guarded by ſome ord⯑nance, and a company of ſoldiers. This diſcovery was made ſome years back, in the old ſhafts, ſcattered about the mountain. Upon all the Uralian mountains are many ſuch old ſhafts or pits ſeen, which have been undoubtedly made in former times by ſome induſtri⯑ous miners, but unknown to us. The moſt conſider⯑able mines in the diſtrict of Orenburg, owe their diſ⯑covery to old veſtiges of theſe miners, which conſiſt of round pits, and deep ſubterraneous paſſages, ſome of them ſo narrow, that they muſt have had much trouble to work in them. In many, they could not ſtand up⯑right. Near Saigatſchi Rudnik ſeveral pits have been found and a ſtream-work uncommonly ſpacious and in very good ſtate. On clearing it out, they diſcovered ſome cakes of melted copper and ſome round pots of white clay, in which they melted the ore, alſo ſome bones of workmen, on whom the ground had fallen in, but not the leaſt traces of a hearth or furnace. In ſome of theſe old ſpots they have found a beautiful green and clear copperas.

The ſtone in which the ore lies, in a very compact green maſs, is yellow, ſoft, coarſe and ſandy, and above the ore, lie broken layers of ſoft, red marble, but the [168] moſt curious circumſtance is that near the ore in the ſand-ſtone, is almoſt every where ſmall and large pieces of trunks of trees, petrified into a kind of rock, that rings when ſtruck with a ſteel, and gives fire like a flint. Some of theſe petrifactions are brown and ſeem to be pieces of linden and other trees, and encruſted with ver⯑digreaſe and blue vitriol.

However rare ſuch wood-petrifactions are in other diſtricts, yet the ores dug in the ſouthern diſtricts of the Uralian mountains abound with them. All the mines along the middle part of the river Jaik both on the Ruſ⯑ſian and Kirguiſian ſide; and thoſe near the rivulets and brooks that flow into the Samara, are more or leſs crowded with ſuch petrified pieces of wood, and ſooty pieces of ſprays, reſembling charcoal. They often find huge trunks, with ſome of their roots and branches. In the winter 1768, I ſent from Orenburg, to the mu⯑ſeum of natural hiſtory, at Peterſburgh, a piece of root, which had lain ſeveral years in this city, and was larger than could be compaſſed by the arms; it belonged to a trunk near ſeventy feet long. It's back was changed into a rich, copper ore, having been found in the mine above-mentioned, with another laying acroſs it, under⯑neath a layer of black ground.

Along the line of the Jaik are wooden redoubts, erec⯑ted at certain diſtances, and in the midway between each is a guard ſtation and a pyramid erected on ſome [169] high ground, with wreaths of pitched cords and other inflammable materials, wound round them, which are occaſionally ſet fire to, as a ſignal to the adjacent guard-ſtation, when the plundering and rapacious Kirguiſians have made any incurſion or committed any depredati⯑on.

We here met with a Chiwian caravan, conſiſting of thirty camels, which, for want of food in this parched country, were ſcarce able to walk. Thoſe uſed by the Aſiatic caravans are moſtly two bunched camels, or dromedaries. Thoſe with one bunch on their back, are ſeldom uſed for this purpoſe. They paſs a cord through the bridge of their noſes, and, during their march, tie one to the tail of another, the goods hang⯑ing in large bales on both ſides on wooden pack-ſad⯑dles. Each load is wrapt in a coarſe, cotton ſtuff, tied with cotton ſtrings, and to ſhelter it from the wea⯑ther, is covered with felts tied on with hair-ropes. For riding and the carriage of proviſions, they uſe aſſes, not unlike European ones.

On one of theſe mountains, in this diſtrict, is dug talc in ſheets, which are fit for window lights, but it is never found in pieces above a yard ſquare; and as it is not genuine iſing-glaſs or talc, but only a gypſeous ſpathum, which does not ſplit pure and fine, is deſtitute of the other properties of genuine talc, it does not de⯑ſerve much attention. This mountain was ſurveyed in [170] 1757, by a land-ſurveyor, ſent from the mine-office, at Orenburg, who has fixed it's diſtance at about four miles from the fortreſs Sheltoi, erected upon the Sa⯑mara.

The brooks in the vicinage of theſe mountains ſwell ſo much in ſpring, from the abundance of ſnow-water, that one ſees whole trees drawn up by the roots and ly⯑ing about in them. On ſome of theſe mountains is found a great deal of jaſper, ſome of a pale-green co⯑lour and ſome flaming red. On one, the fortreſs Orſ⯑kaja is erected, about half a mile from the mouth of the river Or. In it's centre, ſtands a pretty ſtone-built church, which may be ſeen on all ſides from far. Near it ſtands the uncommonly well-ſituated obſervatory, erec⯑ted by Lieutenant Euler, to obſerve the tranſit of Venus over the Sun; round about the hill are dwelling-houſes, but none tolerable, except that of the commanding-offi⯑cer, who is a lieutenant-general. The Aſiatic caravans, which go to Orenburg, croſs the river Jaik at this part of the Ruſſian-boundary. Here their goods are ſealed up, and they can ſell only as much as will enable them to hire waggons to carry their merchandize on, in caſe they ſhould knock up their camels.

The mountain on which this fort ſtands conſiſts en⯑tirely of Jaſper. The ſtone on the ſurface is rough and rocky, but the deeper, the more fine and beautiful is the colour, a very pleaſing, pale ſea-green and a deep [171] brown-red. Some is white, ſome grey, and a great deal of it is black with flame-coloured veins and ſpots. It has been often dug into by miners ſent from the Peterſburgh manufactory at Catherineburgh, and I am perſuaded, was it properly done by regular ſhafts, it would produce beautiful plates of jaſper. By exa⯑mining into the nature and mixture of theſe jaſpers, it cannot be doubted, but that they were formerly a ſoft, varied-coloured loam, now petrified. On the upper⯑moſt parts of this mountain is nothing to be ſeen but a milk-white quartz, ſcarcely covered with earth. On the ſummit of all the mountains, in this chain along the Jaik, are Kirguiſian tumuli, conſiſting of the beſt jaſper. Great pains have been taken to ſelect ſuch a heap of jaſper-ſtone as form theſe graves, which riſe conſiderably from the ground.

July 13. I viſited this chain of mountains about the middle of July. The valleys have a ſaltiſh ſoil, and lead one to ſuppoſe, that the ſalts, which are derived from the burning of the heath and the urine of the cat⯑tle, afterwards waſhed down into the vales by the rain and ſnow, are additional cauſes of the many ſalt ſpots found in the ſouthern ſteps; though it is paſt a doubt that the ſtrongeſt of them originate from ſome hidden and ſubterraneous ſources, for there is no diſtrict in the known world that can boaſt of ſuch an abundance of mineral ſalt, as the ſouthern parts of Ruſſia, Siberia, and the vaſt extent of Tartary.

[172]The line of forts all along the river Jaik, were erec⯑ted to defend the interior provinces of Ruſſia from the incurſions of the Kirgeſe. Theſe forts are ſeldom gar⯑riſoned with more than a company of ſoldiers from twen⯑ty to thirty in number. For though the Kirguiſians are very fond of plunder, they do not like the Arabs make their inroads in large bodies, but in ſmall gangs, and ſhew but little courage.

Jaizkoi Kaſatſchei Gorodok, July, 25. In tracing the river Jaik I reached Jaizkoi Gorodok, the chief city of the Jaikian Coſſacks, on the 25th of July. This place is ſituated (according to the obſervations made by Lieutenant Euler, in my preſence) in north latitude 51 deg. 10 min. 46 ſec. at the banks between which once flowed the Jaik, whoſe courſe is now more eaſtern and ſtraight. The diſtrict about the city is elevated and tolerably even. The city is very irregularly built in form of a creſcent; in one part it is encompaſſed with a breaſt-work, ſupported with chevaux-de-frize and a ditch, and is furniſhed with ſome pieces of ordnance, but is open to the river Jaik, being on that ſide ſafe enough. The number of wooden dwelling-houſes, which are chiefly built according to the old Ruſſian faſhion, but large and ſpacious, amounts to about 3000. They are in general divided into narrow ſtreets, and built very cloſe together. The principal ſtreet, which croſſes the whole-city, from the ſide towards Orenburg to the river Tſchagan, is very crooked and irregular, but it is [173] wide and ornamented with the beſt houſes, Near this ſtreet ſtands a good ſtone-built church and the market, where there are all ſorts of proviſions and many other things. Farther on, towards the well-built cathedral, are a great many ſhops, under the houſes, where foreign merchants ſell a great deal of good merchandize very cheap: a little beyond this, are the ſuburbs, where the Coſſacks of this nation live together, and have a Meſched, or houſe of prayer, built with wood and paint⯑ed white. There is alſo a third church built with wood, in this principal ſtreet, beſides which, there are two chapels built with the ſame materials, but with few or⯑naments; and which are very ſeldom attended by the Coſſacks, who call themſelves the Old Faithful, and perform their devotions chiefly in their own houſes; ſo that even on the moſt ſolemn feſtivals, they ſcarce do more than aſſemble round the church, during the time of ſervice, or ſit and kneel on the outſide of the build⯑ing. It is aſcribed to this prejudice, that a church which had been burnt down and they had began to rebuild with wood, more than twenty years back, remains at this day unfiniſhed.

The city, in general, is very populous. Beſides the great number of foreign merchants, who reſide there at all times, and a ſtill greater number of hired people and workmen, who get their living there, it is calcu⯑lated that the Coſſacks alone amount to above. 50,000, among which are reckoned 4800 enliſted ſoldiers, be⯑longing [174] partly to the army, and partly to the garriſons of the line. In this number, are a great many Maho⯑medan Tartars, unconverted Kalmucks, and therefore called Kyſilbaſhes, partly of Truckmenian, partly of Perſian extraction, and generally well-ſkilled in the cultivation of melon-grounds. Thoſe who have turn⯑ed chriſtians, are called Baldyri. There are alſo among the latter many Kalmucks, who have embraced the chriſtian religion, that they might not be delivered up to the hordes, from which they have deſerted.

The Jaikian Coſſacks having ſettled in an entirely wild country, there is no determining the exact bound⯑ary of their diſtrict. On the left ſhore of the Jaik, which is inhabited by the Kirguiſians, they dare not lay claim to any thing but the hay that grows in the meadows on the weſtern ſide. They call all the heaths or ſteps their own, from their city towards the Caſpian ſea, as far as the river can be ſeen; and their neighbours on that ſide, viz. the Ordinzian Kalmucks, conteſt not the matter with them. The greateſt claim they maintain is, to the river itſelf and it's fiſheries, of which they are fully maſters.

The chief of the Jaikian Coſſacks is a perſon, called by them Woiſkowoi Ataman, now reſiding in Jaizkoi-Go⯑rodok, who is eſtabliſhed by, and is ſubordinate to, the council of war belonging to the empire; but his rank is not fixed. He has under him twenty elders, or Starchins, the principal of whom are always ſitting as [175] judges in the court-houſe. This council has a record⯑er, a ſecretary, an interpreter, a few clerks, and other officers. The chief, or ataman, has two adjutants; the lower ranks of officers are ſotniks and deſſatniks, and no one can arrive at the honour of being an elder or ſtarchin, till he has ſerved in the city as a deſſatnik, ſotnik, and adjutant; for thoſe that ſerve in the forts, on the line under theſe titles, are inferior, in point of rank, to the former. Every officer belonging to this regency has a proper income, and ſeveral privileges from the crown, but thoſe who are not converted to the chriſtian faith, can never riſe to any dignity higher than a ſotnik.

The power of this regency is very much circum⯑ſcribed, for the conſtitution of the Jaikians is merely democratical. No public matter can be decided but in a general aſſembly of the people, which they call Krug, (circle.) If any thing is to be done that re⯑quires a krug, or if the people are to receive any high, imperial commands, the bell rings, which calls them together. The uſual time is between ten and eleven in the forenoon, but the aſſembly may be con⯑vened at any other time. At which time, all the Coſ⯑ſacks in the city are drawn up round the court-houſe, which is built with ſtone, and ſtands, near the cathe⯑dral, in a ſquare, encompaſſed with iron rails, round which the people ſtand, but without any particular order. When the aſſembly is ſufficiently numerous, [176] and the chief or ataman, (who is already with his el⯑ders within the court-houſe,) is made acquainted with it by his adjutants, he goes out on the covered ſteps before the court-houſe, (having in his hand a ſtaff, with a ſilver head, gilt,) accompanied by the elders. The two adjutants then enter the ſquare, lay their caps and ſtaves on the ground, and after having ſaid the uſual prayers, bow firſt to the chiefs, next to the elders, and then to the people every way, who return the ſalute. This done, they take up their caps and ſtaves again, which are the enſigns of their order, approach the chief and lay their caps at his feet, bearing their ſtaves in their hands. After having received from the chief the matter to be debated on, they go back to the peo⯑ple, and when the ſenior of the two hath called ſilence in a particular form, they both repeat the word Pomol⯑ſchite, (ſilence,) and then tell the people aloud, the ſubject to be determined on. This done, they col⯑lect their ſuffrages or votes, and carry them to the chief, who makes his reply to the people through his adjutants, or informs them of the reſult of the poll. The common acclamation of the people when they conſent, at one of theſe meetings, is Soglaſny waſche Wy ſoko rodie, that is, "We acquieſce, high-born gen⯑tlemen," but they declare their diſſent, by Ne Sog⯑laſny, muttering and bringing up the liberties of their anceſtors.

[177]The commands of the ſupreme council, are an⯑nounced to the people by their ſecretary, who places himſelf between the two adjutants, and reads them aloud, the people ſtanding uncovered.

It is needleſs to mention any thing reſpecting the firſt ſettlement and events of the Jaikian Coſſacks, it being moſt circumſtantially related in the topography of Orenburg. I will, however, ſay ſomething of their preſent ſtate. Their manner and way of living is as free and unconſtrained as their government. Young people are continually amuſing themſelves with a va⯑riety of ſports, and the old are not a little addicted to drinking and to idleneſs. The female ſex are at no loſs to give themſelves pleaſure and delight, as much in intrigue as in dreſs. The latter no way dif⯑fers from that worn by the Ruſſians, except in the high colours of their ſhirts, and the form of their caps, which ſtand up ſtraight in the front, are round and flat at top, and commonly very richly embroider⯑ed. That worn by the men is the common Coſſack or Poliſh dreſs. There are among them ſome people of knowledge and good manners, and, about the river Jaik, we frequently meet with politeneſs and cleanli⯑neſs, which ariſes from their intercourſe with foreign merchants. They were formerly very uncivilized, and had ſome very cruel cuſtoms. A creditor was au⯑thorized to ſeize his debtor, tie a rope about his left arm, and lead him about publickly, or treat him as [178] ill and contemptuouſly as he pleaſed, till his debt was paid, either by friends or by alms. But as the right arm is uſed among Popiſh Coſſacks to make the ſign of the croſs, ſhould the creditor tie his debtor's right arm by miſtake, he incurred a puniſhment for ſo do⯑ing, and loſt all claim to the debt. When a wife had given her huſband offence, he was at liberty to diſpoſe of her by ſale, at any of their publick meetings, and the price paid was often but a trifle.

On all ſolemnities both of church and ſtate, the peo⯑ple aſſemble about the court-houſe, and are treated with bread, fiſh and brandy,

Within the hall, the regalia being removed, the ta⯑bles are ſpread with all ſorts of ſtrong liquors, dried fiſh, roe (or caviar) and bread, when the Sovereign's health is drank by the Ataman and Starchins, under the firing of the great guns, and the whole is concluded by drinking to the proſperity of government and the welfare of the community.

Young people enjoy a great deal of amuſement. Their courtſhip and nuptials deſerve to be noticed. From the very day of a ſolemn betrothing, which is done with many ridiculous circumſtances, to the day of marriage, which is ſeldom ſooner than twenty weeks, all the young maidens of the bride's acquaintance aſ⯑ſemble every evening at her houſe, and divert them⯑ſelves [179] with ſinging and dancing. During this time, the bridegroom is authorized to take a huſband's liber⯑ties with his bride, but with ſome ſecrecy. Before the wedding, the bridegroom preſents his bride with a com⯑plete female dreſs, and ſhe, in return, preſents him with a cap, boots, and ſhirt. When the nuptial cere⯑mony is over, the bride returns to her houſe from the church in an open waggon (telega). Behind her, ſit her mother and the bride-maid, their fingers full of rings and holding out on each ſide a piece of linen to hide the bride's face from the ſpectators. Before the waggon walks the bridegroom with his father and rela⯑tions. Behind ride ſeveral, among whom is one car⯑rying at the end of a long pole, like a flag, a piece of ſtuff, ſtriped with ſeveral colours, ſuch as is worn by the Circaſſian women, by way of petticoat; and it is ſtrange that the women of this diſtrict do not wear it likewiſe. The nuptials are next celebrated with dancing and ſing⯑ing, and moſtly in the ſtreets. Tartarian dances are frequent at ſuch feſtivals, and there are many young people who perform the varied and innumerable moti⯑ons of the body with great ſtrength and wonderful agi⯑lity. Athletic exerciſes they practiſe from their child⯑hood, as alſo ſhooting with the bow, the uſe of fire⯑arms, and the lance, in which they are eminently ſkil⯑led.

I have already ſaid, that the line or boundary along the river Jaik, beſides the little forts and ſtations, are [180] chiefly garriſoned by Coſſacks; for this purpoſe they enliſt every year, about twelfth-tide, a thouſand volun⯑teers to relieve thoſe poſted there the year preceding. Many of theſe ſoldiers ſettle afterwards in or near theſe fortreſſes, continue in the ſervice and breed cattle, act⯑ing as ſubſtitutes for others, and receive their pay, pre⯑ferring this life to the laborious and uncertain trade of fiſhing. At every new levy, the volunteers are accept⯑ed at a public meeting, and their pay is there ſettled, according to each man's reſpective circumſtances, ge⯑nerally as little as poſſible. For theſe troops they elect a certain number of officers, and the colonel is ſubor⯑dinate to the Ataman.

I will proceed now to their ſeveral employs and the manner in which the Jaikian Coſſacks get their living. They have among themſelves, ſhoe-makers, ſmiths, carpenters, &c. and never ſuffer ſtrangers of theſe de⯑nominations to ſettle among them. Their town is ſup⯑plied with ſuch articles as are not made here, by foreign traders, who travel to this place to purchaſe fiſh. Some of the Coſſack women make camblets of different good⯑neſs and value; the moſt common ſort is very durable and cheap, and they manufacture ſome of ſo ſuperfine a quality, as not only to rival the camblets of Bruſſels, but would excell them, was it not for the defect com⯑mon to all their drapery and ſtuff, that of being made in very ſmall and narrow pieces. The Tartarian name of theſe ſtuffs is Armak, and ſeems to have been invented by [181] the Kirguiſians or Kirgeſe, whoſe women manufacture a coarſe kind of camblet. As camel-hair is to be bought here in great perfection, and at ſo low a price as about 9s. Engliſh for 36 pounds weight, it is a pity that encouragement is not given them to manufacture a ſtuff of this hair in large pieces, which would find pur⯑chaſers every where. They, at preſent, breed very few camels, not ſelling any great number to the Aſiatic caravans; but there is no animal that would thrive bet⯑ter on, or are more fond of, the ſalt plants that over⯑ſpread the heaths of this diſtrict.

Breeding of cattle is one of the principal occupati⯑ons of the Coſſacks; but the Ruſſians attend only to horſes, and to horned cattle. Both proſper well in this warm country, and acquire a handſome form. Their horſes are no way inferior to Ruſſian horſes, in beauty, ſtrength and courage. They live both ſum⯑mer and winter on the heaths, and never fare better, till when taken up to hard labour. The dry ground gives them a fine, hard hoof, and renders ſhoeing un⯑neceſſary.

On account of their breeding of cattle, many of the Coſſacks have encloſures or cattle-yards, on thoſe parts of the heaths, where there is the beſt paſture. Such Tartars, as keep great flocks of ſheep, wan⯑der about with tents, made of felts, but the Ruſſians erect wicker huts, where they gather their ſheep at [182] night, and plaiſter theſe huts with mud. They drive great herds of cattle from the Jaik to the Wolga, and tranſport great quantities of hides and tallow to thoſe towns, where there are a number of tanneries, and ſoap-manufactories, as Caſan, Jaroſlaw, Arſamas, &c.

Another branch of employ is hunting heath or ſtep-foxes, wolves, beavers, and wild boars, of which ſport they are very fond. The ſeaſon for this, is the firſt three winter-months, when they are tracked in the ſnow. And they follow this buſineſs cloſe up, eſpecially when they have had an unſucceſsful fiſhery.

But the chief employment of the Coſſacks about the river Jaik is fiſhing, wherein they are regulated by many cuſtomary laws. They fiſh but four times a year in that river, and only three of theſe ſeaſons they con⯑ſider of any importance. The firſt principal time is in January, when they fiſh with hooks; the ſecond is in May, and continues till June; the third, and leaſt conſiderable, is the autumnal ſeaſon, in October, and they finiſh in the beginning of December, with nets; which they ſet under the ice, not in the Jaik itſelf, but in it's branches, and the lakes upon the heaths. At this lake fiſhing-time, they catch only a few ſmall fiſh for their own uſe.

The crown, in laying a moderate duty on the fiſh⯑garth or wear, formerly made upon the river near Gur⯑jef, [183] had confined the fiſheries to the Jaikian Coſſacks; but, they having demoliſhed that garth and erected another at the further end of their city, which ſtops the paſſage of the whole river, the fiſh from the Caſ⯑pian ſea can come no higher up than Jaizkoi Goro⯑dok.

I will now proceed to give my readers ſome accouht of theſe fiſheries. The kinds of fiſh caught in this river, are the horn-fiſh, ſturgeon, ſhad, barbel, bream, ſalmon, and a variety of ſmall fiſh.

Of all the wandering fiſh, the firſt that comes up the river is the white ſalmon, and that in February. They are caught beneath the ice by hooks, baited with pieces of fiſh. In March, April and May, the ſeveral kinds of ſturgeon ſhoot their way from the ſea, and ſwim up the Jaik, in ſhoals. I have been well in⯑formed, that at certain ſeaſons, they place cannon on the banks of the river near the wear, at Jaizkoi Goro⯑dok, load them with powder only, and fire often into the water to repel the impetuoſity of thoſe vaſt ſhoals of large fiſh, that would otherwiſe break the wear, that croſſes the river. They ſay, and it is very probable, that the ſturgeon comes up into the river in the month of April, when the willow buds, to ſpawn, and that they rub themſelves upon the ſtony ground to get rid of their roe; though, as I have obſerved before, young ſturgeons are never caught. From a conviction that [184] the Ruſſia ſturgeon and horn-fiſh, paſs the winter in this river, they have a law that obliges them to throw all they catch, into the water again, becauſe, when re-caught in winter, and tranſported in a frozen ſtate, they fetch a greater price, and thus contribute to the public intereſt. And they enforce this law ſo ſtrictly, as conſtantly to deprive him that breaks it, of all his fiſh-proviſion, and whip him into the bargain.

It is chiefly ſturgeons and bjelugas that are caught with hooks, in January. Theſe fiſhes are ſaid to lay themſelves in rows, in deep parts of the river, towards the latter end of autumn, and ſo paſs the winter in a certain ſtate of reſt, though not without motion or ſenſibility. Now, as the river Jaik, from it's ſandy bed, is continually changing it's depth, owing to the inundations in ſpring, that waſh away the banks be⯑neath the water, it is uncertain in what ſpots the fiſh lie. On this account, in autumn, when the ice be⯑gins to form itſelf, the Coſſacks will watch the moti⯑ons of theſe fiſhes; for it is ſaid, that before they lay themſelves up, they play ſome time upon the ſurface of the water, and leap ſeveral times over thoſe ſpots where they mean to winter. Others go out upon the ice, as ſoon as the river is frozen, and lay down on thoſe ſpots where the water is cleareſt, and will tell you, that by putting a cloth over their heads, they can ſee the fiſh lying at the bottom.

[185]When the time of the hook-fiſhing is come, which is commonly on the third or fourth of January, a general aſſembly of the people is held, when it is aſked about, whether the abſent Coſſacks are returned; an enquiry, alſo, is made in what places the fiſh is ſuppoſed to lie, and finally, what day is fixed to begin fiſhing. In this and other fiſheries, with an intent to keep order, they elect an ataman or chief, from the ſtarchins, under whoſe command they chooſe ſome elders and an adju⯑tant, as conductors of the reſt: but the inferior Coſ⯑ſacks join as it were in partnerſhip, five or ſix together. Every thing is prepared before the day fixed, and care is taken to have good ſharp hooks and poles of various lengths on which the hooks are faſtened. Before the fiſhing day arrives, every Coſſack enliſted, though not on duty on the lines, receives a written licence, ſealed with the regency-ſeal. A Coſſack that has ſerved his year, or one that has not yet ſerved, may procure a li⯑cence to fiſh, by getting himſelf regiſtered. No perſon can have more than one of theſe written licences, except the members of the regency, who have ſome excluſive privileges. The ataman, or chief, is entitled to four, the ſtarchin to three, and the inferior officers to two licen⯑ces each. The clerks have only one licence granted to two, and every reſident prieſt has one. Thoſe who have theſe licences can ſell them, which enables many, who have no claim to a licence, to purchaſe one.

[186]On the day appointed, all thoſe Coſſacks who have written powers, aſſemble themſelves with ſledges, and every neceſſary implement before ſun-riſe, in a certain place, before the town, and range themſelves into a line, in the ſame order in which they reach the ground. Here they are received by the ataman, elected for the fiſhery, and care is taken, that every Coſſack has a firelock, in order to defend themſelves againſt any at⯑tack made on them by the Kirguiſians. This done, two officers exhort the people to behave orderly and quietly, and as ſoon as day begins, a ſignal is given from the town, by the firing of two pieces of cannon; upon which, every one haſtens, as quick as his horſe can carry him, to the diſtrict appointed for the fiſhery, in order to chooſe the moſt advantageous ſpot. Yet no one dares begin to open the ice, till every one has taken his place, and the ataman has fired a gun or two, by way of ſignal to begin.

I muſt notice here, that the river is divided into two parts, one for the ſpring and autumn-fiſhing, and the other for the hook-fiſhing, alone. The latter be⯑gins juſt beyond the town, and continues to the diſ⯑tance of 300 miles; and from thence to the Caſpian ſea, the river remains undiſturbed, till the net-fiſhing comes on. At firſt ſetting off, they fiſh only one day, to enable the poorer Coſſacks to purchaſe with the gain of that day, proviſions, and other neceſſary things. Five or ſix days after, the great fiſhery begins, and [187] laſts for nine days, fiſhing about twenty miles of the river each day. Each day the Coſſacks haſten to the ſpot, where they are to begin, before dawn, and there wait for the ſignal of the ataman.

Every man makes, on the ſpot where he means to fiſh, a moderately round opening in the ice. One may fiſh as near another as he pleaſes, but no one can have two openings, at a time; yet, when he leaves one opening he may make another, and a ſecond may oc⯑cupy the ſpot he left. By frequent changings and tri⯑als, they will fiſh in the courſe of the day the whole diſtrict, appointed for that day's fiſhery. Where the places are not very deep, they uſe hooks, with ſhort poles. The pole, with the hook on it, is put down to the bottom of the river, and as the diſturbed fiſh riſe, they draw up the pole, and hook the fiſh. This done, they bring it within reach of a ſhort hook, which they have in their other hand, and with which they hook the fiſh afreſh, and pull it up upon the ice. If two men hook the ſame fiſh, it is divided between them, and if one has not ſtrength enough to pull a fiſh out, he calls his next neighbour to aſſiſt, and the fiſh is divided. One man ſhall have ſometimes the good-luck to hook ten or twelve large fiſhes in a day, when another ſhall not be able to catch an equal number in the whole month, perhaps not ſufficient to pay his expences. A man commonly makes a vow before he leaves the town, to give the firſt fiſh he hooks, or perhaps more, to the [188] church, on condition fortune favours him. And they are ſuperſticious enough to believe, that in caſe they hook a frog, (of which there are ſome of very enormous ſize in this river); the perſon to whom this diſaſter hap⯑pens, if he ever changes his ſpot or hooks, will not catch a fiſh the whole winter.

The ſecond great fiſhery is in the ſpring, for the fiſh Sewrjug. As ſoon, in the month of May, as accounts arrive from Gurjef, ſent by the Coſſacks quartered there, to watch for the ſaid fiſh, that it makes it's appearance in the mouth of the river Jaik, they pre⯑pare every thing to catch it. The ſame orders and ceremonies are obſerved, as in the winter. An ata⯑man is choſen, whom every one, who has a written power, is bound to obey. A certain diſtrict is ſet out for the fiſhing, by a rope drawn acroſs the river, which no one is to paſs. This fiſhery laſt only three days, as the ſewrjugs, when diſturbed, return into the ſea. The laſt fiſhery is commonly finiſhed in one day. This is carried on at the mouth of the river, and begins with the uſual ceremonies, as before, at day-break, each en⯑deavouring at a ſignal given, to out-row the other, be⯑fore the nets are ſpread, for every one who fiſhes, has a boat and net to himſelf. Theſe boats are made of the trunks of black and white poplar, (no other tree here being of ſufficient diameter, for the purpoſe,) tanned on the outſide with the aſphaltos, which I have already mentioned, and which is found here in abund⯑ance. [189] The nets they uſe, for Bjeluga fiſhing, are from 20 to 30 fathoms long, each fathom, ſeven feet Engliſh.

'To obſerve the ſtruggle,' ſays Mr. Gmelin, ‘there is in the Bjeluga fiſheries, is pleaſant. When the cold ſets in, the fiſh retire to their lurking places for the winter, at which time, as the bjeluga holes are well known, the commander of the fiſhery, orders all the inſpectors to forbid the fiſhermen from ex⯑erciſing their profeſſion in ſuch places as theſe fiſh lie, and all maſters of veſſels on the river, not to make any noiſe, nor fire any gun to diſturb them.’

‘On the day when the great fiſh-chace is ſettled, after the fiſh have been ſeen to riſe ſeveral times to the ſurface of the water, and then plunge to the bot⯑tom, which is generally about the beginning of No⯑vember, the fiſhermen are appointed to attend at a certain hour, with their boats and implements; and the commander, inviting his friends to the diverſion, the evening before, repairs with them to one of theſe hurdle-dams or fences, acroſs an arm of the river, for at each of theſe dams a number of labourers are kept at a regular fixed ſalary, have houſes to live in, and a church for public worſhip. The company continue here all night regaling themſelves, and at break of day, proceed to the bjeluga-holes, with a univerſal ſilence.’

[190] ‘Having prepared their nets, and diſpoſed their boats in proper order, the firing of a muſket is the ſignal for departure. At this ſignal, all the boats, to the number of 300, ſtart at once; and no ſooner are the nets caſt, and all the paſſages cloſed, then the moſt horrid cries and ſhouts of the fiſhermen, ſuc⯑ceed the profound ſilence that reigned before. The affrighted fiſh endeavour to eſcape by all ſorts of means, ſome gain the ſurface of the water, others not daring to venture ſo high, remain in the middle region; ſome ſtrive to ſhun the danger by the moſt irregular contorſions, but none can eſcape, being encompaſſed by a troop of fiſhermen and nets. The ſport now encreaſes, enormous fiſh are ſeen tumbling, head over tail, on the ſurface of the river, and others overſetting the boats. In one place fiſhermen, wet from head to foot, making an uproar as if they were poſſeſſed, and indeed they are ſo, moſt of them be⯑ing drunk; in another place, loud and violent diſ⯑putes and torrents of abuſe take place, on the driving together of two boats, When fortune is more favourable to one than another, we ſee the ef⯑fects of jealouſy; at laſt, all order ſeems to be ba⯑niſhed, all perſons row where they can, and hence ariſe a thouſand freſh diſputes, as the nets entangle, and the boats ride and drive upon each other.’

It is affirmed by fiſhermen in general, that they ſometimes meet with fiſh, hermaphrodites, as well among the bjelugas as other kinds of ſturgeon; that is, fiſh that have a milt on one ſide, and ſpawn on the other. The ſame thing has been obſerved in Holland among the chevins, or large cod-fiſh.

'The river Wolga,' ſays Tooke, ‘has a great re⯑ſembance to the Nile in Egypt, for it receives into [192] it's channel ſo infinite a number of rivers and ſtreams, that when theſe are encreaſed by the melting of the ſnows, the waters riſe above their uſual level, and not only overflow the low iſlands in the river, ſo as that ſhips paſs over them, but all the plains that lie on each ſide the river are ſo overwhelmed, that nothing but the tops of the higheſt trees appear above the ſurface of the water; and when the water leaves theſe plains, the land is in the higheſt ſtate of richneſs and fertility. But on account of it's numerous windings, angles, flats, iſles, ſhelves and ſand-banks, the moſt expe⯑rienced ſailors are kept in continual alarm. It is only in the months of May and June that large veſſels ſail on it with ſecurity and eaſe, when the waters are ſwel⯑led as I have mentioned. The wideſt part of this river is between Tzaritzin and Aſtrachan. At Aſtra⯑chan it is 2200 feet over, at Tzaritzin about three-fourths of a mile, and it divides itſelf into a greater number of branches than any known river in the world. At Aſtrachan the river riſes or ſwells about ſix feet, at Tzaritzin higher, and the flats and and vallies all round are ſo entirely deluged that they have the appearance of a large ocean, and the hares and field⯑mice are deſtroyed by thouſands. The animals of a larger kind, ſuch as wolves, foxes, wild-bores, &c. have, probably, a preſentiment of the approaching flood, as they take their flight to the inland ſteps; but, when the high waters take the hares by ſurprize, ſo as entirely to ſurround them, they ſeek a refuge on [193] the higher lands, and when the inundation reaches thoſe alſo, there is ſcarcely one that can eſcape: if the water does not by chance reach them, the hunters do, and theſe take them, with their hands, alive. Rats and mice will, ſometimes, take the reſolution to eſcape by ſwimming, and deſperately ſtrike, in troops, for the Wolga itſelf, in order to gain it's high weſtern ſhore, and in doing this will ſwim upwards of two miles, and periſh at laſt; others take to the trees, where birds of prey wait their coming, and the bjeluga will ſhake the ſmaller trees with it's tail, tumble them down and devour them alive; ſo will they the young crows that have not learnt to fly. The mouth of this river, at Aſtrachan, is full of ruſhes, and is a harbour for wild boars, who feed upon the rats that dwell among them.’

‘The fiſheries in this river, though very profitable, are often attended with great danger, for when a ſouth-wind riſes, the waves of the ſea flow towards the mouth and violently raiſe the ice. If then a ſtrong wind from the ſouth, north-weſt or eaſt, ſhould ſud⯑denly ſucceed, it cauſes a reflux of the water towards the ſea; the ice ruſhes on and often breaks into pieces of enormous magnitude. Pieces will drive out to ſea containing fifteen or twenty ſquare miles. When this happens, all the fiſhermen that are on it, are ſoon ſwallowed up and loſt.’

[194] ‘In theſe cruel circumſtances, as ſoon as the unfor⯑tunate wretches perceive themſelves disjointed from the ſhore, they keep a look-out, to obſerve towards what point they are driven by the waves. If they find they are floating to the open ſea, they ſtand in the ſame place immoveable as ſtatues, waiting the dreadful deciſion of their fate; but if there remains any hope of reaching land, they leap upon the horſes they uſually take with them for drawing the fiſh, and gallop full ſpeed towards the leeward ſide, hoping the piece of ice, in it's paſſage, will come in contact with the ſhore, and give them an opportunity of leaping on the land in the moment of contact. If they loſe this moment, the ice repelled with violence towards the ſea, will ſoon go to pieces by the agitation of the waves, and their deſtruction is more certain than ever.’

‘It is natural to imagine that a ſtate of life ſo full of danger, will be followed only by people already re⯑duced to the moſt abject ſtate of miſery, and who have often merited the laſt inflictions of civil juſtice by their delinquencies. From the time they embrace this calling, they are fixed in a perpetual bondage, by the advances their neceſſities oblige them to accept of their employers, who frequently take advantage of this circumſtance to ſubject them to the moſt cruel injuſtice; though they only are gainers by their toil, growing rich by their miſeries, whilſt the [195] unfortunate labourers are plunging deeper and deeper into diſtreſs.’

Theſe fiſheries ended, the Coſſacks proceed to other buſineſs. They travel to purchaſe bread in the diſtricts of the Wolga and Samara, and towards the latter end of ſummer, cut and make their hay.

During the hook-fiſhing, a great many buyers come here from the moſt diſtant parts of the Ruſſian empire. Sturgeons caught in winter, are ſold to theſe buyers as they are caught, who dreſs the fiſh and roe, barrel it and tranſport it frozen. Ten good ſizable ſturgeons will ſell for from thirty to forty-five rubles, each ruble 4s. 6d. but a large ſturgeon, even without a roe, will fetch ſix or ſeven rubles. The largeſt bjeluga ſturgeon caught in the river Jaik, will weigh above 1000 lb. and yield 200 lb. of roe, or cavear. The ſturgeons here are about ſeven feet long, and weigh about 200 lb. but the ſpawners are generally the largeſt, and will yield ſometimes 36 lb. weight of roe, and are ſold, at the firſt hand, for two rubles. A few years ago, they found a great part of the roe in an old bjeluga petrified, though the bjeluga-ſtone, which is the petrified roe, is very ſcarce indeed.

'This ſtone,' ſays Mr. Sokolof, who viſited the Caſ⯑pian fiſheries, ‘is found lying lengthways under the cartilages of the back, in the part where the kidneys [196] of other animals are. The inſtant it is taken from the fiſh, it is ſoft and moiſt, but quickly hardens in the air. It's ſize never exceeds that of a hen's egg; it is ſometimes oval and ſometimes a little flatted or bent towards the place where it is faſtened to the back. It may be ſcraped with a knife, but with dif⯑ficulty, and does not ferment when mixed with acids. Though it has little merit, it holds a conſiderable rank among the domeſtic remedies of the Ruſſians, who adminiſter the ſcrapings in ſmall doſes, mixed with water, in difficult labours, in the diſeaſes of children, and againſt ſtoppages in the urinary paſ⯑ſages. The value of a ſtone is a ruble.’

The freſh roe, being ſoftly worked with the hand, through a coarſe ſieve, is thus cleaned, and as in this ſouthern clime, the mild weather begins ſoon after new-year's day, they ſalt it to prevent it's ſpoiling. It is afterwards preſſed down in barrels with the feet, and conveyed to very diſtant parts.

They alſo dry the back ſinews of the Sewrjug ſtur⯑geon, make them up in bundles of twenty-five each, and ſell them for food, at the rate of three or four rubles a thouſand; and as they hold every part of the ſturgeon to be eatable, they preſerve the ſtomach of it, and eat it as a dainty. But the moſt valuable part of this fiſh is it's bladder. Thoſe merchants who buy the whole fiſh, commonly ſell back the bladder to the Coſſacks, [197] who make iſinglaſs from it, which is done here in one way only. As the bladder is taken freſh from the fiſh, they waſh and ſpread it in the air to dry, then divide the inner ſkin, or white ſkin, which is the iſinglaſs, from the outer; wrap it up in a moiſt cloth to make it pliable, and then roll it up and pinch it into the form of a ſer⯑pent or a heart, and let it dry again in the ſhade. This is ſold at different prices, according to what fiſh it is taken from, from twelve to forty rubles per pud, each pud 36 pounds Engliſh.

Salt is alſo a very conſiderable article in the Jaikian fiſheries. The Coſſacks have liberty to provide them⯑ſelves with a ſufficient quantity to ſalt their fiſh and roe, which are conveyed into Ruſſia, and uſe many thou⯑ſand puds for this purpoſe. Indeed the ſteps or heaths about this river are ſo abundantly provided, by nature, with this mineral treaſure, that the inhabitants will ne⯑ver want it. They once fetched this ſalt in ſummer-time, for the uſe of the town, from the diſtance of ſeventy miles, with an eſcort of 200 armed men; but at preſent they have it from the ſea-ſide. Their provi⯑ſions, when ſalted, are kept, in all the guard-ſtations, in pits made in the ground, or in tubs covered with mats and clay.

The Jaikian Coſſacks know nothing of agriculture, perhaps the defence of their forts leaves them no time for huſbandry, or, as they juſtly remark, the too great [198] ſaltneſs of the land will not allow it. I think the Bu⯑charian millet would grow here. This plant proſpers, with ſome care, exceedingly well among the Aſiatic nations, on a ſoil and in a climate ſimilar to this. It is the only kind of corn the Bucharians have, and the high and thick ſtalks of this plant ſerve the inhabitants of thoſe woodleſs countries for firing. It is no wonder, therefore, that the Bucharians ſhould cultivate it, and have a ſolemn and univerſal feaſt at ſeed-time. A ſingle plant will often yield two pounds weight of mil⯑let. Tobacco might alſo be planted here with ſucceſs, if the Coſſacks did not abhor it, from ſome religious prejudice.

They are here great lovers of the water-melon, and raiſe great quantities of them, beſides all ſorts of ve⯑getables for the kitchen. There is not leſs than fifty large water-melon gardens, in and about this town, Jaizkoi Gorodok, the fruit of which is ſold for a trifle. Theſe gardens are divided into long fields, encloſed only with a hedge, and to all parts of theſe gardens, they conduct the water in the manner of the eaſtern na⯑tions, in clay trenches, in order to water the plants ſuf⯑ficiently. Of courſe, theſe gardens are always near ſome flowing or ſtanding water, where they raiſe the water by a water-gallows. During the ripening of this fruit, they keep continual watch, to frighten the crows and magpies, which are no where more daring and ra⯑pacious than in [...] diſtrict.

[199]Jaizkoi Gorodok, owing to it's high and open ſitua⯑tion, is a healthy town, and the people know no other diſorders than ſuch as proceed from their way of life and a certain contagion of luſt, which is a univerſal and common diſorder. All the inhabitants are ſtrong, robuſt and of a large ſize, not excepting the women; and this luſt-diſorder, is a kind of leproſy, little known in Europe, but general along the diſtricts of the river Jaik. It is the ſame diſorder known in Aſtrachan by the name of the Crimean ſickneſs, brought from the Crimea, in former campaigns. The Jaikian Coſſacks aſſured me, that it was brought to Aſtrachan by a regiment that ſerved in a Perſian war. They call it the black diſtemper, one of it's firſt ſymptoms being a livid colour that covers the face. I ſaw ſeveral per⯑ſons labouring under it to the higheſt degree. The pa⯑tient ſuffers with it four or five years, before it attains it's height, and they ſay it is in the ſeventh year only that it proves mortal. It does not infect all perſons who attend the ſick, at leaſt not during the four years. I have ſeen a family in Jaizkoi Gorodok, where the eldeſt brother was firſt afflicted with it; three years after, the youngeſt brother caught it, and one year after this, the mother, and yet the wives of both, who cohabited with their reſpective huſbands all the time, were free and clear from it. It ſeizes chiefly the robuſt and per⯑ſons of middle age. The firſt and ſecond year, the pa⯑tient feels no particular pain, nor is ſenſible of any weakneſs. His face looks blue, as if he was choaked, [200] and this is followed with a number of blue-red ſpots or blotches on the wriſt, ſides and face, which occaſions an extreme roughneſs of the ſkin in thoſe places, or ſcurf, called, in medicine, impetigo. Some have no ſpots at all in their faces, for the firſt year, but a few ſmall ones about their joints. In the beginning of this diſ⯑temper, patients are ſomewhat feveriſh, but after two years, they all ſuffer the ſmarteſt pain in their limbs and joints, begin to loſe their appetite, ſtrength and coun⯑tenance, and become very faint. At this period, the leproſy is more virulent and ſpreads itſelf all over the body, not in thick and deep-red ſpots, but in flat and ſcabby blotches, which exulcerate by degrees and leave a bad ſcurf, continuing longer than any ſi⯑milar irruption. When the ſcurf drys away, the parts itch, and the ſkin underneath the ſcurf naturally heals, but if the patient ſcratches it or picks off the ſcab, it is followed by an increaſing, angry boil, that will pene⯑trate even to the bone. When this happens in the fingers, it deſtroys them quite, and they will fall away, joint by joint. The legs are commonly moſt covered with ſpots, but, by degrees, no part of the body is free from them, except the palms of the hands, the inſide of the joints of the arms, the arm-pits, the back-ſide and knuckle-joints. Theſe parts, even in the moſt de⯑ſperate ſtate of the diſtemper, are always clear as at other times, as is alſo that part of the head on which the hair grows. Thoſe with whom the diſtemper con⯑tinues to the ſeventh or eighth year, have their noſtrils, [201] the inſide of the mouth and throat and windpipe exul⯑cerated, and it is probable that the inward and more noble parts are infected with boils e're the diſtemper proves mortal. Yet in it's laſt period, it affects the conſtitution and ſtrength leſs than one ſhould expect, for the pains are commonly tolerable and the natural functions go on regularly. It does not appear that the patient, as in other leprous diſorders, feels an uncom⯑mon luſtful deſire; this appetite they loſe gradually; nor do they loſe their hair, except on the eye-brows, which are always itching, and on the exulcerated parts. It is ſaid, that this diſorder is cured in Crimean Tar⯑tary by a decoction of the plant anbaſis aphylla, which grows there and alſo about the river Jaik. I doubt much whether mercury would radically cure it. At Orenburg, they ſalivated a Coſſack afflicted with it, in it's middle period; he loſt much blood, and afterwards ſeemed better; but, being ſuffered to return to his for⯑mer diet and way of living, the leproſy returned and raged with redoubled violence. Mercurial lotions ex⯑ternally applied and antimonials taken internally, would, probably, be a better treatment, but ſuch ex⯑periments require the ſkill of able phyſicians.

By way of cloſing this account of Jaizkoi Gorodok, I will mention ſome of their moſt common and pernici⯑ous inſects, which are moths or tarakans, and crickets; they have alſo a large kind of wandering field-rat. (The ſurmulet of Buffon). I no where met with ſo many [202] crickets as in this place, owing partly to the warm and dry ſituation of the town, and partly to a bad cuſtom the people have, of ſtuffing the ſeams of their houſes be⯑tween the beams, with fine hay, having no moſs for that purpoſe, and theſe inſects liking to take up their abode in this hay. With reſpect to the field-rat, the Coſſacks aſſured me, there had not been any in their country, about the river Jaik, for three years paſt, though the northern parts of Ruſſia and Siberia abound with them; but, that owing to a dry and burning ſum⯑mer, vaſt quantities of them came one evening from the ſtep of Samara to this town, and were ſeen by many of the inhabitants to make their entrance partly through a certain gate and partly over the ramparts. From this time they became exceedingly troubleſome, having re⯑mained all the ſummer in town, for want of food on the ſtep. It is remarkable, and I had it from good authority, that theſe miſchievous gueſts never treſpaſs on one ſide of the principal ſtreet, which leads through the town, but always keep on the eaſtern ſide.

Account of the Kalmucks. During my ſtay at Jaizkoi Gorodok, I often viſited the Kalmucks, who live on the ſtep between this and Samara, in great numbers. But as I could gather from them little of the hiſtory of this remarkable nation, during the time when the great Horde retired from the river Jaik, and marched to the weſtern ſhore of the Wolga, on account of the Kuba⯑nian war; I will content myſelf with putting here to⯑gether, [203] what I could collect of their way of living, cuſ⯑toms and religion.

‘According to Albulgaſi, indeed, they are a branch of the Mongols, who, in very remote ages, wandered about the deſarts, on both ſides of the mountains that divide Dauria from the preſent Chineſe Mongalia and the ſouthern parts of the Sayane-hills. Long be⯑fore the end of the twelfth century, they were ſepa⯑rated into three branches under the denomination of Mongols, Oirats and Burats; Tſchingis Khan, who lived about 1300, united them under one monarchy, became their ſovereign and made their ſeveral princes tributary to him. He conquered China and ſubdued the Tartars.’

‘When the Mongols were driven out of China, in 1368, the united Mongol and Tartar Hordes, after ſubduing their weſtern neighbours, ſpread into Ruſſia and other parts of Europe, and there formed new colonies. Under the deſcendant of Tſchingis, the princes divided again, and thus, with the addition of Ruſſian conqueſts, the vaſt Mongol-Thibetan empire was entirely disjointed in the ſixteenth century. From this diſperſion of the people aroſe the preſent Mongol and Tartar nations. Tſchingis Khan and Timur Bek, who attacked China and wreſted it out of the hands of the founder of the new dynaſty of Ming, ſprung from one and the ſame anceſtor.’

[204]Of the three branches, the Mongols, the Burats and the Oirats, I ſhall ſpeak but of the latter, who are commonly called Kalmucks.

'Theſe deſarts,' ſays Tooke, ‘which the Kalmucks inhabit, lie between the Don and the Wolga, and on the river Ural from Irgis to the Caſpian ſea. They conſiſt of a ſtony loam, are quite burnt up, deſtitute of wood, abound in ſalt, contain many freſh-water lakes, as well as ſalt lakes, and produce wholeſome herbage, which makes their cattle vigorous and fat.’

‘The preſent Kalmucks are of three tribes. Tor⯑gouts, Sjungorians and Derbets, and conſiſt of about 20,000 families, dividing themſelves into three ranks, the nobility, whom they call white-bones; the common people, who are bondmen, whom they diſ⯑tinguiſh by the name of black-bones; and, the clergy, who are deſcended from both ranks, and are freemen. The noble ladies are called white-fleſh, the common women black-fleſh.’

The Kalmucks are, in general, middle-ſized men, though there are more ſhort than tall. They are all well-made, and I do not recollect ever ſeeing one maimed or deformed. The education of their children, while infants, which they leave ſolely to nature, muſt give them healthy and perfect bodies, though they are ſlender and their limbs ſlight. I never ſaw a fat, corpulent Kalmuck, at leaſt among the common men; though among the Kirguiſians and Baſkirs, who live quite in the ſame manner, many are often very bulky and corpulent. The complexion of their face and body is tolerably white, but their infants are quite ſo. It be⯑ing a cuſtom, among the common people, to let their children run about ſtark naked in the burning ſun and the ſmoke of their felt-tents, and even grown perſons ſleeping quite naked, it changes their natural complex⯑ion to a yellow-brown; but this is not ſo viſible in the women. Among their ladies of diſtinction, are ſeen ſome very white faces, and theſe appear more ſo from the blackneſs of their hair. In this, as well as in the [206] features of their faces, they are perfectly like the wo⯑men of China.

It is unneceſſary to deſcribe the common features of the Kalmuck men, they being ſufficiently known. Tooke ſays, ‘They are, for the moſt part, raw-boned and ſtout; their viſage is ſo flat that the ſkull of a Kalmuck may eaſily be known from that of any other man. The eyes too are ſmaller and the corners of them flatter than among the Europeans; they have thick lips, a ſmall noſe and a ſhort chin, and their beard is ſcanty and appears late. Their teeth are even and white, their complexion a reddiſh-brown, and their knees always ſtand outwards, like a bow, which proceeds from their manner of ſitting on their ancles and their being almoſt conſtantly on horſe-back. The women are of the ſame ſhape and make with the men, only that their complexion is very clear and of a wholeſome white and red.’ According to ſome tra⯑vellers, one might be led to ſuppoſe, that all the faces of the Kalmucks are deformed and frightful, but this is not the caſe. There are, among both ſexes, many round and pleaſant faces, ſome whoſe features are ſo re⯑gular, that they would not want admirers in any Euro⯑pean city; though it ſeems a characteriſtic of this people, that the corners of their eyes and eye-brows have a ſlant direction, and the bridge of their noſes are ſhort and flat. I found, that the Dſungorians were gene⯑rally taller and had a prettier viſage than the Torgouts, [207] the former having, probably, received a greater mix⯑ture of Tartarian blood, by the rape of the women be⯑longing to this latter nation. As to the blackneſs of their hair, with which their children are born, I did not ſee among the Kalmucks, a ſingle exception, nor the leaſt degeneration into a brown colour. Full-grown men have a ſtrong and large beard, but they leave only a whiſker turned up on their upper lip, and a tuft upon their under one. Old perſons, and eſpeci⯑ally prieſts, leave a whiſker and let the hair grow over the corners of the mouth, on the lower lip, underneath the chin and about the neck. The reſt of the face is kept clear, by plucking it, and cutting it with ſizzars and rough knives. The Kalmucks, alſo, like the Tartars, accuſtom themſelves in this manner to extir⯑pate the hair from other parts of the body.

Having now ſpoken of their perſons, I will proceed to their minds, in which I ſhall have an opportunity to be more favourable in many points than travellers in gene⯑ral have been. In this reſpect, they are far before other Nomades or ſhepherd-nations. The ſocialneſs, hoſpitality, candor, officiouſneſs and a certain gaiety which never leaves a Kalmuck, but diſtinguiſhes him from the more phlegmatic Kirguiſian, may be called good qualifications, but their idleneſs, want of cleanli⯑neſs and knavery, which they too often miſemploy, are juſtly to be deemed their principal vices: a love of idleneſs is common and natural to all nations who [208] lead an unlimited, careleſs and paſtoral life; yet the Kalmucks have leſs of it, owing to their ſprightlineſs. But their filthineſs or naſtineſs can no way be contra⯑dicted or excuſed, and, perhaps, is to be aſcribed, as in the lower claſſes of the French, more to their educa⯑tion and volatility than to ſloth; for the Kalmuck wo⯑men, perform their domeſtic offices, with great induſ⯑try, and are, therefore, much courted and coveted by the Kirgueſes. As to their mental faculties, their knowledge is certainly much limited, but, in ſpite of all their ignorance, they have a very good, quick and natural underſtanding, which might be very eaſily cul⯑tivated and improved, if their way of living and natu⯑ral ſprightlineſs were not inſuperable obſtacles. Though generally cholerick, they live more friendly together, than one ſhould expect from their mode of living. Among themſelves they are ſocial and hoſpitable; they like to ſhare every thing that can be enjoyed, and never keep any thing to themſelves alone. When eating, drinking, or ſmoking tobacco, every one preſent muſt be a partaker; and if, for example, there ſhould be but one tobacco-pipe, they muſt all uſe it by turns. If one is preſented with tobacco, fruit, or other eat⯑ables, he will divide it with his friends or thoſe who are next him. If a family has made a proviſion of milk to make brandy of, they will call in their neighbours to help to conſume this bleſſing. But this liberality moſtly extends itſelf to eatables, for they never part with any of their property. However thieviſhly in⯑clined [209] they may have been deſcribed, yet they never ſteal any thing from their countrymen, unleſs there be hoſtilities among the Uluſſes. Indeed, moſt of the robberies with which they have been charged, ariſe from hoſtility or a ſpirit of revenge, but this is not done by violence, but craft. I have been told, that theſe Uluſſes, who, formerly, were under the government of Naſarmamut, but now under Bambar, one of his ſuc⯑ceſſors, a perſon renowned for his warlike diſpoſition, have always been famous for robbery, but, that among all other Uluſſes, if the leaſt care is taken of their pro⯑perty, no ſuch attempts are made.

As the Kalmucks know not how to make any ſort of ſtuff for cloathing, they are obliged to buy it all. The common people ſeldom wear any thing but ſheep and other ſkins, and felts, which they throw over them in the rain, by way of cloak. The better claſs of men wear an upper-garment, like that worn by the Poles, except the ſleeves which are cloſe and narrow, and an under⯑garment, buttoned all the way down and bound cloſe to the body with a girdle. Thoſe of diſtinction wear a ſhort ſhirt under it, open before, and wide breeches, made of linen, which reach down and are faſtened into the buſkins. The poor do without a ſhirt, and are not leſs gay in their narrow coat or fur, which they faſten round them with a girdle.

[210]The upper-garment and boots of the women, differ but little from thoſe of the men, only that their cloaks are lighter made and of better ſtuff, a little longer and more elegant and lighter about the arms. Thoſe who are ladies of diſtinction, wear over the under-garment or beſchmet, a rich and long floating waiſtcoat, without ſleeves, and hang the upper-garment, or fur, upon one or both ſhoulders. As the women have their under⯑garment and ſhirt open before, they can uncover their boſom to the girdle, and always do, in the ſummer-ſeaſon, when they mean to be well dreſſed.

The women would be ſcarcely diſtinguiſhed from the men, if it was not for their head-dreſs, and in this, married women differ from the maidens. The heads of the men are commonly clipt cloſe, leaving only a long tuft of hair behind, in the centre of the crown, which thoſe of diſtinction generally braid into two or three treſſes. The Torgouts wear, both ſummer and winter, a ſmall round cap, bordered with fur. The Sjungori⯑ans commonly wear a ſummer hat, covered with felt, juſt like thoſe of the Chineſe, except it's being ſmaller and having a flatter brim. All wear, upon the crown, a large ſpreading fringe, which hangs down under the cap. A Kalmuck's ears, like thoſe of the Tartars, ſtand at a diſtance from his head, and the cap comes down to the root of the ears. This prominence of ear is more viſible in the Kalmucks than the Tartars, the ears of the former being rather larger.

[211]Boys hair is ſhorn from their infancy, but the wo⯑men do not like to have their hair cut; girls run about like furies with bewildered locks; but at the age of ten or twelve, when a Kalmuck lady is marriageable, her hair is plaited in as many treſſes as ſhe pleaſes, and wound round the head. When a girl, however, is married, theſe treſſes are undone, and the hair is braid⯑ed into two large ones only, which hang down in tails over both ſhoulders. The ordinary claſs of women, whilſt at work, put theirs into a linen bag. The caps of wives and maidens are partly the ſame, except that the lower claſs wear them only when they go out or are well-dreſſed. It is a round, flat cap, bordered with fur and covers only the upper part of the head. Women of diſtinction wear higher caps of a richer, ſilk ſtuff, with a broad brim, cocked up before and behind, and lined with black velvet. They ſeem fond of ſpreading, on the top of their caps, a broad fringe, that hangs down on all ſides. Such a cap they call chalban, the common ones maihalhu. All the women wear ear⯑rings. ‘Some maidens are ſilly enough to ſmear their faces with red and white paint, and ſome women will wear a large, gold ring in their noſtrils.’

In the centre of this tent ſtands, always, a great iron trivet, under which they continually keep ſome fire, and over it dreſs their victuals in large flat iron pots. Great quantities of theſe pots are made at the iron manufactories in Ruſſia, and ſold to the Step-nations. The remainder of their furniture conſiſts of wooden diſhes, drinking bowls, large and ſmall bottles, veſſels made of leather, a large tea pot, made of wood, but among the better claſs of people, hooped with copper or ſilver. Their bed ſtands oppoſite the door, behind the fire-place, commonly on a ſmall wooden bedſtead, the pillow and bolſter of which are made of felt.

Domeſtic labour falls upon the women only, the men taking no other pains than to build and repair their tents, the reſt of their time being ſpent in hunt⯑ing, attending their flocks, or in idleneſs or amuſe⯑ment. It is the woman's buſineſs to milk the cattle, mares, cows and ewes, and prepare the hides or ſkins, to do the needle-work, and every other domeſtic occu⯑pation. They alſo knead, with their hands, camel, horſe and cow-dung, make flat cakes of the compoſiti⯑on and dry them in the wind, which is the only firing they uſe. The women alſo take down the tents, pack them up and erect them afreſh. When the maſter of a [214] houſe means to go abroad, it is the duty of his wife to ſaddle his horſe and bring him to the door. In ſhort, the women have ſo much to do, that they are ſeldom ſeen idle. They have ſcarce time to dreſs themſelves.

In ſummer-time, they have abundance of milk, which, indeed, is their chief nouriſhment. They have commonly more horſes than horned cattle, and mares milk is what they like beſt; for, being made ſour, it contains ſuch a ſpirit, that if a perſon drinks two or three of their large bowls full, it will almoſt intoxicate him. Their cows and mares will give down no milk unleſs the calf or colt be preſent; on this account, colts and calves are kept almoſt the whole day, about their tents, ſtaked down to a particular ſpot of ground, with long ropes, and are ſuffered to ſuck only at night. Their mothers will feed, naturally, not far from them, of courſe, they have them always at hand. They milk the mares every hour, and each yields about the ſeventh part of a gallon, or a moderate bottle full of milk; but, the cows are milked only twice or three times a day. Before milking, the mother is led to it's young one, and as ſoon as it begins to ſuck, ſome one puſhes it away, and the milk flows freely; with the cows it is ſufficient to ſhew them their calf, and ſhould it die in the birth or afterwards, they will ſtuff the ſkin and tie it up among the reſt, in order to ſhew it to the cow at milking-time; but the mare is not ſo ſimple, and they are under a neceſſity of acting cautiouſly with theſe, [215] leſt it ſhould make them ſtubborn and refuſe their milk entirely.

Freſh mares milk is much more fluid than the milk of cows, but, on account of a little alkaline taſte, is not ſo pleaſant; yet, if they turn it with cleanlineſs, it has a moſt delicate vinous flavour. It yields hardly any cream, of courſe it is not fit for butter, though ſome writers falſely ſay it is; but it is richer in ſpirituous and fermenting particles. In winter, when they have but little mares milk, they make ſhift with cows milk, which is much leſs ſpirituous, and, when turned four, has a more diſagreeable taſte.

In order to turn the milk, they pour it gradually in⯑to large leathern or other veſſels, which, in winter-time, are ſet near the fire, either above or under ground. Commonly, unclean veſſels alone will turn it, but if not, they forward it with leven, made of flour and ſalt. As they diſtill a ſpirit from this ſour milk, they ſometimes turn it with a little of this ſpirit, if they have any or can borrow it from their neighbours, and ſometimes with a little of the ſour milk which they find in the ſtomachs of the lambs they kill. Milk deſigned for diſtilling they take no cream from, but beat it about now and then with a ſtick, as they do in making butter; or, as the milk is collected in ſummer in lea⯑ther bottles, they ſhake it well twice a day, and this will turn it.

[216]When they have collected a ſufficient quantity of ſuch milk to make themſelves merry, and the whole has ſtood to ſour, at leaſt one day in ſummer, but more in winter, the women diſtill a ſpirit from it in the following manner. Having ſet over the fire the largeſt iron boiler they have, being firſt rinſed with water or melted ſnow, after ſhaking the milk, they pour it into the boiler, and fill it, within two fingers breadth of the top. This kettle contains about two or three Ruſſian pails full, or more. It is then covered with a hollow cover that fits it, made of two pieces of wood, having two ſquare openings; the edges of this cover and the places where the wood joins are luted with clay, glue and freſh cow-dung. The Kalmucks of Stawropal uſe in winter, a ſtiff dough of coarſe flour. Near this boiler is ſet a ſmaller one, with a ſimilar top, and from the opening of one to the other is fixed a curved wood⯑en pipe, forming a ſtill, and thus, with a ſlow fire, they will diſtill, in an hour and a half, a bad ſpirit, to the amount of one fourth of the milk if it be cows milk, and one third, if mares milk. But the ſpirit diſtilled from mares milk, is ſeldom ſtrong enough to burn, that from cows milk never, unleſs it be diſtilled a ſecond time.

When this liquor is made, and the neighbours are aſ⯑ſembled to partake of it, the maſter of the tent throws ſome into the fire, ſome up the chimney, and after breaking a point of the clay-cover, pours a little alſo [217] on them. So done, he fills a bowl, which contains a moderate bottle full, from the remainder, and hands it round, according to the age of the perſons preſent, ſerv⯑ing the oldeſt firſt, without any reſpect to ſex. The Kalmucks ſay, that this milk-brandy does not in⯑toxicate ſo quick, or in ſuch ſmall quantities as Ruſ⯑ſian brandy, but that, if a man gets drunk with it, he will continue ſo two days, and muſt ſleep longer to recover himſelf.

The remainder of this milk, after the ſpirit is diſtil⯑led from it, is exceedingly ſour, and they either mix it with freſh cows-milk and drink it immediately, or ſave it, to ſteep their ſheep and lamb-ſkins in; or elſe they boil theſe dregs with ſome freſh cows milk, till it grows thick, then pour the curd into bags, and, after ſqueezing it well, dry it in the ſun and eat it as cheeſe. They make, alſo, a kind of cheeſe from ewes milk, which they eat in winter with butter. Indeed this is the only uſe they make of ewes milk, deeming it unfit for diſtilling. To make butter from cows milk, they boil it well, turn it ſour in the courſe of one day, beat it with a butter-ſtaff and pour it into a bowl, when the oil or butter will ſwim on the ſurface, which they ſkim off and keep in leather veſſels.

They are never at a loſs for meat in ſummer, as they can procure it in abundance, either by hunting, or from ſuch of their cattle as die a natural or accidental [218] death. Very rarely do the Kalmucks ſlaughter their own cattle, but from neceſſity, or on ſome great feſti⯑val. This is done only by the rich and by the firſt claſs of people. Birds, of all kinds, they are very fond of, if fat. The badger, the marmot, and the rat, are their peculiar dainties. They account the beaver, alſo, to be wholeſome food, unleſs it be too fat. Be⯑ſides theſe animals, they eat wild horſes, wild goats, wild boars, and all ſorts of birds, even the largeſt bird of prey: yet they abhor the fleſh of wolves, ſaying, it is bitter. They eat, alſo, the fox and the ſmaller kinds of thieving animals with reluctance. When they have plenty of meat, in ſummer, they will cut it into narrow ſlices, dry it in the ſun or, in rainy weather, over a ſmoking fire within their tents, and lay it up for winter and travelling proviſions. ‘Even the chiefs and firſt people among them,' ſays Tooke, 'will feed upon cattle that have died of diſtemper and age, and let the fleſh ſtink ever ſo much, they will eat it without diſguſt. For this reaſon, in every horde, the fleſh-market has the appearance of a lay-ſtall of carrion.’ Bread and groats they purchaſe from the Ruſſians; for, as they eat but little, they never cultivate any land or ſow any corn. I have been informed, however, that ſome of the Ordinzian Kalmucks have ſettled about the Caſpian ſea, in order to eſtabliſh fiſheries and culti⯑vate the tobacco-plant, of which they are very fond. There are certain roots, alſo, which they eat, as the knots of the ſage-tree, (phlomis tuberoſa) which they [219] call Bodmon. After drying it and reducing it to pow⯑der, they boil it into a pulp with milk. They eat, alſo, the chichling vetch, (Lathyrus tuberoſus), which they call Schnok, and boil it with their meat; and alſo the roots of a ſort of ſun-flower (umbellata). Inſtead of tea, which they boil in the Mongalian faſhion, with milk and butter, the common people gather on the ſteps, a kind of ſmall liquorice, ‘which they boil with ſalt and milk; they are great lovers of mead and brandy, and both ſexes ſmoke tobacco at an enor⯑mous rate.’

I made many enquiries into the manner in which the Kalmuck women tan and prepare the different ſorts of hides and leather, and found it to be as follows. When they mean to dreſs their fine lambſkins with care, they firſt waſh them clean in luke-warm water, ſpread them in the air and let them get a little dry. They then ſcrape them, on the inſide, with blunt knives, to take off the fleſh-ſkin that may hang to them and render them more ſupple: this done, they ſpread them out in the air, on a piece of felt, and rub them over for three days ſucceſſively, thrice a day, with the dregs of the milk after it is diſtilled, or with ſour cows milk, in which ſalt has been diſſolved. On the fourth day they ſuffer them to get quite dry, and work them between their hands on their boſom, till they be⯑come quite ſoft and pliant. After this, they are ſmoked, to make them reſiſt rain the better and pre⯑vent [220] the rain from ſpoiling them. For this purpoſe they kindle a ſmall fire in a little pit, and throw over it dry, rotten wood, dryed dung and other things that will create ſmoak. Sheep-dung is conſidered the beſt for this purpoſe. About the pit they ſtick poles in ſuch a manner as to form a pyramidical figure, and cover theſe with ſkins, ſo as to keep in the ſmoke, ſometimes changing their ſituation, that every part may be equal⯑ly ſmoked. This is continued for an hour, and, as it renders them ſtiff again, they are a ſecond time rubbed with the hands, till they are of a proper ſoftneſs; they are next rubbed well with bruiſed chalk, ſcraped clean and poliſhed with ſharp knives, and, at laſt, whitened with pieces of chalk. Nothing then remains but to clean and beat the fleece.

When they mean to beſtow leſs trouble, as is the caſe with coarſe ſkins, they lay them over with a paſte made of aſhes and ſalt water, to the thickneſs of the ſkin itſelf, and as the ſkin abſorbs the lye, they do it afreſh; next day they ſcrape the fleſh-ſide clean and waſh it with ſour milk, and when dry, the ſkin is worked ſoft, and whitened with chalk. Some waſh theſe ſkins after they are ſmoked, and rub them with half-boiled ox and ſheep liver, which have been laid ſome days in milk to rot and become a pulp. This makes them ſoft but gives them an intolerable, bad ſmell. All the furs they prepare for their own uſe, are ſewed by the women with fine, ſplit ſinews of horſes, bullocks and elks, drying, [221] beating and tearing them into threads, which ſurpaſs all kinds of thread in ſolidity. Horſe and bullocks hides, of which they make leather veſſels, are prepared by the Kalmucks, in the following manner. They firſt ſcald them in boiling water to get the hair off; (the backs of ox-hides make the beſt veſſels), but ſome lay them in aſhes to get off the hair; which ever way it is done, they are next ſcraped and ſmoothed with knives, and waſhed clean in flowing water. Others prepare them by soaking them a week or more in ſour milk, in which a little ſalt has been diſſolved. Boot-leather is prepared in this laſt way. But, in order to make the beſt kind, the hides are ſpread, as they come out from the water, in the ſun, and the women, moſt ſkilled in this buſineſs, cut out the pieces that are to form the veſſel, few it with ſinew-thread and dry it in the ſmoke. They manufacture in this manner, not only veſſels with wide mouths, giving them their form whilſt drying, but all kind of bottles and veſſels with narrow necks. In order to preſerve the form, they continually blow into them whilſt drying on the fire, or fill them with ſand or aſhes. The outſide they embelliſh with a variety of lines and figures. They even contrive to make tea-pots of leather, reſembling the China ones, and make them very neatly: as ſoon as they are dry, they are fit for uſe; but in order to keep them firm and not liable to get ſoft with liquid, and to take away any bad ſmell, they ſmoke them well for ſome days. And as rotten and dryed cow-dung is ſeldom to be found on the heaths, they collect it by degrees, [222] and do not begin to make theſe veſſels, till they have got a ſufficient quantity to ſmoke them with. They are ſmoked within theſe pyramids, till they are as tranſpa⯑rent as horn, and equally ſolid. I have ſeen ſome of their bottles, which would hold as much as five or ſix pails.

Thus does the womens induſtry procure the men an eaſy and an idle life, which, as, by their conſtitution, they are all ſoldiers, is perhaps not reprehenſible. Be⯑ſides the profeſſion of arms and the care of their flocks, it is the department of the men to mend and repair their tents, and when they give a daughter in marriage, to build the young couple a new one. In the manufac⯑turing of felts, the men take alſo an active part. Having ſheered their ſheep in ſpring and ſummer, with ſharp knives, they ſpread the wool out on an old felt carpet or mat, on which it is well beaten by ten or twelve perſons, ſitting round it, till all the duſt is out. It is then equally ſpread upon a felt, the exact ſize of the one that is to be made, and in ſpots where they want to vary it in colour, they place, over the firſt layer of wool, dyed wool of thoſe colours, This done. they carefully roll up the whole together, and tye it tight with hair-cords; then all the people preſent ſit down in two rows, oppoſite to each other, take the rolled felt between them and raiſe it to their knees, throwing it from their knees again on the ground, with all their ſtrength, and continuing this for ſome hours. This [223] unites the wool into a body, and when they think it is ſufficiently matted, they unroll it, and repair, with the hand, any defects that appear in it.

Kalmuck arms moſtly conſiſt of lances, arrows and bows; the latter are made of different kinds of wood, but chiefly of the plane-tree. They have a variety of arrows, ſome ſhort, made wholly with wood, with a knob at the end; with theſe they kill ſmall animals and birds; others are light arrows, with ſmall iron-points, and ſome, war-arrows with a ſtrong iron-point. All theſe arrows are winged with eagle-feathers, taken from the tail of the bird, as the wing-feathers are apt to car⯑ry the arrow out of it's direction. They are contained in certain diviſions in a quiver, and hung on the right⯑ſide of the ſaddle; the bow, in a ſcabbard on the left⯑ſide. The more opulent Kalmucks have fire-arms. Such as are well-armed wear a breaſt-harneſs, like thoſe of the eaſtern-nations, conſiſting of net-work, made of iron and ſteel rings; getting theſe from the Truchmenians. I have ſeen ſuch breaſt-harneſs in Perſia, worth more than fifty horſes, conſiſting wholly of poliſhed ſteel. There are, however, cheaper ones, which they get in barter for about ſeven or eight horſes. Their full-armour conſiſts of a round helmet, with an iron net-work, that hangs down, round the neck upon the ſhoulders, but only as low as the eye-brows on the face; a coat of mail, with ſleeves to the wriſt, covering the back of the hand with a ſlip, faſtened between the [224] fingers; and two arm-harneſſes, extending from the elbow to the wriſt, and buckled on the outſide of the arm, to defend it from blows in any engagement.

The iron-work uſed for their arms, is made among themſelves. There are a kind of petty jewellers alſo among them, who make ornaments for the women, and embelliſh tea-pots with ſilver figures of animals and hoops. Their tools are very ſimple. Their bel⯑lows conſiſts of a leather-bag, with a pipe, fixed be⯑tween two boards, which they extend and preſs to⯑gether.

Their manner of hunting is various, and they are ex⯑pert in taking wild beaſts with any kind of trap or ſnare; they alſo ſhoot very exactly with arrows and fire-arms. Kalmucks of diſtinction, are very fond of hawking with a kind of hawk (falco lanarius), which frequents this diſtrict, and is much valued. They keep alſo dogs, which have long ears, are good houſe-dogs and expert at the chace.

The great wealth and ſubſtance of a Kalmuck, are his flocks and herds. But they keep more horſes and ſheep than horned cattle or camels. Their horſes are not much ſmaller than thoſe of the Kirgueſe, are tolera⯑bly high, ſlight, but are neither handſome nor ugly; they are ſtrong enough for draught, but too wild; as to ſwift⯑neſs, they are inferior to none; as they have no other [225] feed than what the ſteps afford, they will live any where and almoſt upon any thing. Indeed, a Kalmuck never accuſtoms them to regular feed, fearful of increaſing their wildneſs and ferocity with their ſtrength. Some Kalmucks own a hundred horſes, and other cattle in proportion. They cut their colts at the proper ſeaſon, by opening their ſcrotum, catching hold of the ſperma⯑tic veſſels and nipping off the teſticles with their nails, ſearing the part with a red-hot iron. They do the ſame with ſheep and calves. That they may never want mares milk, they ſuffer the ſtallions to run continually with the mares.

Kalmuck ſheep, like thoſe of the Kirgueſe, have very thick and fat tails, though not quite ſo large as Kirgui⯑ſian ſheep. Their rams have hanging ears, ſeldom any horns, and their wool is leſs hairy, generally white with ſpotted faces. The ſheep here are ſuffered to feed in all ſeaſons, and, as they lick the ſnow, require no water. Among the Kalmuck flocks are generally a few goats, with pendant ears, ſpotted with ſeveral co⯑lours, having long hairs hanging down their legs, but ſeldom any horns.

As camels multiply but ſlowly, their property in theſe is but ſmall, but they have as many as they want and often ſome to ſell. They have ſome with one bunch on their backs and others two. Many are taken to Orenburg market, and there trucked away to the Bu⯑charians. [226] This animal thrives well on the ſteps, a⯑mong the ſalt-plants, but requires attention in winter, it being neceſſary then to cover their loins with mats or old felts.

Kalmucks paſs the winter with their flocks in the moſt ſouthern diſtrict of the Wolga ſtep and along the Caſpian ſea, but always at ſome diſtance from the Jaik, where the Kirgueſe, their moſt cruel enemies, have fixed their abode. They find there plenty of reeds to kindle fire with, and as it ſnows but little, the cattle have no difficulty in finding food. With the beginning of ſpring, they draw, by degrees, to the north and ſeek the hilly and watry diſtricts of the milder ſtep, till af⯑ter the Wolga has entered within it's bounds, and of⯑fers a richer paſture in the lower lands.

I cannot ſay much of their diſeaſes, which are not many in number, like thoſe of civilized nations, on ac⯑count of their plain way of living: but as their chief aliment is meat, and that eaten half rotten, it is eaſily to be conceived that they muſt have ſome inflammatory diſeaſes. The moſt dreadful and dangerous diſorder among them, is a burning and infective fever, mortal on the eighth day. Where it ſeizes families, it will carry off one or more from each tent. Thoſe who live in the neighbourhood of ſuch as are afflicted with this diſtemper, fly from their abode and ſearch, at a farther diſtance, for a ſafer one. The itch is alſo a frequent complaint among the lower ſort of Kalmucks, which ariſes from their manner of feeding and their indolent ſtate of life, during the winter. But they are more af⯑flicted [228] with the furor amoroſus, ariſing from the ſcald. The biles, indeed, make their appearance but ſeldom, but when they do, they rage with virulence. This is alſo obſerved among the Kalmucks of Stawropal, who are more ſubject to it; ſo that it is clearly, in a great meaſure, owing to the quantity of animal food they eat. Owing to their ſmoky tents, the intolerable heat of the ſun, and the yellowneſs of the heaths; inflammations of the eyes are ſo frequent that many wear a ſlip of crape over them, by way of prevention. ‘The ſchoolmaſter is generally the ſurgeon; he feels the pulſe, opens a vein, ſcarifies and clyſters.’

It is time now to ſay ſomething of their political and religious conſtitution. The Kalmucks were once ſubject to certain chiefs, whoſe prerogatives were hereditary. Even, at preſent, the nation is divided among little, tributary princes, who call themſelves Nojonn, and pay but little obediance to the Khan, that overules the whole. The horde ſubject to ſuch a Nojonn, is called Uluſs, and is ſubdivided into ſmall fraternities, living not far from each other, under the name of Aimaks, conſiſting of from 150 to 300 families, who are ſurbordinate to certain nobles, bearing the title of Saiſſang. Each Aimak is again divided, on account of the paſture, into companies of ten or twelve tents, compoſing what they call a Chatun, which, properly ſpeaking, im⯑plies a boiler, ſo that Chatun is a is a ſociety which cooks out of the ſame boiler. Each Chatun has an [229] overſeer, who owes obediance to the Saiſſang of their Aimak, as does the Saiſſang to the Nojonn. A Nojonn receives tithes of cattle from all his ſubjects. He has a right ad libitum to inflict corporal puniſhment for all miſdemeanours, and can ſentence them to have their ears, noſe and hand cut off, but not to take away any man's life publickly; though he exerciſes this pow⯑er privately, on thoſe who incur his diſpleaſure. If a Nojonn has not regulated the ſucceſſion in his life-time, or made prieſts of ſome of his children, they will, after his death, divide the uluſſes among themſelves, and this diviſion is commonly very unequal. The mode of ſaluting a Nojonn, among the common Kal⯑mucks, is by cloſing the hand, holding it to the fore⯑head, and then touching the Nojonn's hip therewith, and, if the Nojonn thinks proper to return the compli⯑ment, it is by ſtriking the other on his ſhoulder.

'The princes,' ſays Tooke, ‘are only dependent on the Khan, in matters of general importance; in every other reſpect, they are independent. They ac⯑quire their uluſſes by hereditary ſucceſſion. The Khan has a privy-council, or ſarga, conſiſting of Nojonns, Saiſſangs and Prieſts, wherein ſits an aſſeſ⯑ſor from every uluſs, and an advocate from the government's chancery at Aſtrachan; and, here it is, that laws are enacted.’

[230]There are ſeveral other dignities, or titles, conferred by the Nojonns or Khan, as the ſovereign lord of the uluſs, but I am not acquainted with them. Every uluſs has, at leaſt, one chief Saiſſang, whom they ho⯑nour with the appellation of Tarchan. Another title, belonging to thoſe nobles who are about the Khan and chief princes, is Taiſcha; theſe are ſent as ambaſſadors, (Darga), from one uluſs to another, to the Ruſſian cities and governors.

‘The eſtabliſhment of the hordes is altogether mili⯑tary. Every ſubject muſt, on the firſt orders, repair on horſeback to the head-quarters of his prince, armed and with a good ſtock of proviſions. The troops are aſſembled almoſt as ſoon as the order is known. The prince muſters them, and ſends the feeble and the wretched home again. This muſter laſts ſome time, and procures the ſerviceable men the diſtinction of Men of war. The head-quarters of the prince are known by the whiteneſs of the tents, and by being ſurrounded by other tents in a circle.’

‘The army is compoſed of regiments of unequal numbers, and every regiment (Ottok) is divided into hundreds. Each regiment has it's colours painted with the idol-gods of war, dragons, ſerpents, tigers, lions, &c. it's colonels (Tzrigen yaſſool), captains (Soon yaſſool), and other officers, but no martial muſic. Every regiment is compoſed of three com⯑panies, [231] muſquetry, bowmen and neck-breakers, or lance-breakers. The muſquetry firſt attack, next the bowmen, and, laſt of all, the neck-breakers. They fight with courage, and uſually conquer all that fight in their way: but, againſt the regular troops, I mean the troops of government, they can make no ſtand, except when they are vaſtly ſuperior in numbers. When they ſerve the Ruſſian crown, they are equipped and paid as Coſſacks.’

It is very remarkable that the Kalmuck princes have long ſince thought of and enacted laws, which would put thoſe European civiliſed nations to the bluſh, who, with an affected diſdain, preſume to call them barba⯑rians. They have a code of laws written in Monga⯑lian language, which, in the reign of Galdan-Khan, was improved and ratified by twenty-four Mongalian and Uiratian princes, in the preſence of three Kutuchts, or high-prieſts; wherein they trifle not with the life of a man, nor inflict on him ordinary and extraordinary tortures, in order to force from the weak and innocent a confeſſion of crimes he never thought of: the penal⯑ties in their code of laws, are forfeitures of property, proportioned to every degree of crime. I will mention ſome. For treaſon and hoſtilities among princes and uluſſes themſelves, the penalty is forfeitures of their whole property, or ſuch a mortification as the wealth and rank of theſe princes will admit of. For di⯑ſertion in general war, for cowardice or ill-conduct in [232] battle, the forfeiture of a commanding-officer is as heavy as his circumſtances will admit of; their arms are taken from them, they are degraded and led about in womens clothes. For murder, the puniſhment is very great, but does not affect the life, nor wound the body of the criminal, even though he were a parricide. If men quarrel and fight, and one is killed, every one who was a ſtander-by and did not ſtrive to prevent it, is fined a horſe. Where a man is kiled in publick games, the party killing is to receive and maintain the wife and children of the deceaſed. For aſſaults and wounds the fines are proportioned to the injury done; it is enacted how much ſhall be paid to atone for a tooth, ear, and each finger of the hand. Parents or pa⯑rents-in-law, who beat their children, without a cauſe, are alſo liable to fines. There are alſo fines for inſults or affronts, the principal of which to men, is pulling the hair or beard, tearing off the fringe from the cap, ſpitting or throwing ſand in the face; and, to women, pulling their treſſes, or touching them wantonly on the boſom or elſewhere. In this latter caſe, the puniſh⯑ment is adapted to the age of the tranſgreſſor. For adultery and whoredom, which is often committed with ſlaves, and for beſtiality, the fines are but ſmall. It would be too extenſive to give a detail of the fines an⯑nexed, for interruption of hunting, extinguiſhing of lamps, detaining loſt cattle, or keeping a loſt carcaſe without giving notice of it, and other little caſes. The ſevereſt puniſhment is inflicted for theft. Beſides the [233] reſtitution of the ſtolen goods, and a fine of cattle, it is enacted, that the robber, even of a trifle, ſhall loſe one finger, unleſs he thinks proper to buy off this cor⯑poral puniſhment, by paying five head of cattle. There are even fines annexed to ſtealing needles or yarn. And, in an appendix to this code, Galdan-Khan, him⯑ſelf, added, that an overſeer of one hundred tents, or an amiak, ſhould be reſponſible for the thefts commit⯑ted by his ſubjects: and that the overſeers of a cha⯑tun, knowing of a theft and not giving notice of it, ſhall loſe a hand; but the common people are to be laid in irons, and he that has been three times convic⯑ted of theft, ſhall loſe all the property he has. The fines are chiefly great and ſmall cattle, in proportion to the circumſtances of the delinquent and the heinouſ⯑neſs of the crime or offence, and are divided be⯑tween the nojonn, the clergy and the plaintiff. The fines of perſons of rank are a certain number of arrows, helmets and other warlike acoutrements. The higheſt fine inflicted on a prince for hoſtility, is 100 coats of mail, 100 camels and 1000 horſes; and, to inforce the payment, the other princes are to riſe in one body againſt him; and ſhould he have ruined whole uluſſes, or large aimaks, they deprive him of his all, keeping one half to themſelves and dividing the other among the injured party. For ſome crimes, the perpetrator is to loſe one or more of his children. The ſmalleſt fine is a male or female goat, or a ſmall number of arrows.

[234]'Some of their laws are a kind of proverbs', ſays Tooke: for example,

‘Let him that proves faint-hearted in battle, be carried through the camp in women's apparel.’

‘Let him that lifts his hand againſt his commander, or ſenior, pay a penalty of twenty-ſeven head of cattle.’

‘Let him that commits murder, loſe his wife and poſſeſſions.’

‘If any give a blow in an affray, by which he breaks his antagoniſt's thumb, let him forfeit eighteen head of cattle; if the middle finger, nine, &c.’

‘Let a thief, who cannot make good what he has ſtolen, be beaten, and drag after him a log; and alſo be marked with a burning iron. If the theft be great, he may be ſold for a ſlave.’

Rape of a virgin is fined nine head of cattle, and adultery the ſame.

Among their laws, it is alſo ſtipulated, that a be⯑trothed girl cannot be married under the age of four⯑teen, and not later than twenty, and then, if he, to whom ſhe is betrothed, will not take her, ſhe may be [235] given to another, provided the nojonn has been firſt made acquainted with it. The number of cattle, which a father may accept for his daughter, and the re⯑ciprocal preſent he is to make, are aſcertained, accord⯑ing to the rank of the parties, ‘from fifty camels and four hundred ſheep to fifteen horſes, as many oxen and twenty ſheep.’ It is alſo a law, that every year out of forty kibitks, or habitations, four perſons muſt marry. Each is to receive from the public fund ten head of cattle, as a reward or purchaſe for the bride, and the bridegroom is to have from the father ſome old cloaths in return.

‘None dare appear defore the prince otherwiſe than ſitting on his legs, but without croſſing them in their ordinary manner. All heads are uncovered, when his commands are recited.’ Common people greet each other with a mendu, which implies the ſame as ſalve or "Save ye," among the Romans. ‘If it be a long time ſince they have ſeen each other, they lay their two hands flatways together. On the feſtival Zagan, they kiſs each other, but at other times never, not even between lovers. In converſation, they are not very ceremonious, but are exceſſively ſubmiſſive to ſuperiors, and ſhew an uncommon reverence to the aged.’

When taking a ſolemn oath, they put the muzzle of their firelock to their mouth and kiſs it, or, in want of [236] ſuch a piece, touch their tongue with an arrow, put it's point to their head and ſay, ‘God deſtroy me; I will be born again in no wild beaſt, if I ſay an un⯑truth!’ In weighty and important caſes, they are proved by fire-ordeal. The head of an ax, or other iron, is heated till it is red-hot, and the accuſed is to carry it at the end of his fingers, to the diſtance of ſome fathoms. If he does this, and is not burnt, he is acquitted of the charge. I was told, that ſome are ſo ſkilful in this buſineſs, that, by moving their fingers quickly, they will receive no injury, which is conſider⯑ed as a proof of their innocence.

But I muſt proceed to their religion, and ſpeak of thoſe ſpiritual and temporal cuſtoms as have any con⯑nexion with it. Their doctrine is the religion of Lama, moſtly the ſame with that of their brethren, the Mon⯑gols, whom they copy in language, writing and manner of living. In this religion, we find, as in that of Brahma, a complete ſyſtem of the ſtructure of the world; it's paſt and future ſtate envelloped in a laby⯑rinth of fables and crafty illuſions: it includes the old doctrine of Metempſychoſis or the tranſmigration of ſouls, in ſo ſtrict a ſenſe, as that all their deities, who formerly were men, had, before their deification, been rigorouſly ſubject to their law, having wandered through many animal bodies. They paſs from the body of one beaſt into another, till they have gradually effaced their ſlight tranſgreſſions, by penance and re⯑morſe. [237] Common ſouls proceed directly to the judg⯑ment-ſeat in Paradiſe, without any wandering, and re⯑ceive the decree that diſpoſes of them for ever. This is their faith, at leaſt as to their principal idols. The Kalmuck religion, in the externals or ceremonials, has ſo near an affinity to many practiſed by ſome ſects of chriſtians, I mean in their opinions of the change of the world, and ſeveral other points, that it is proba⯑ble, to thoſe who give a ſcope to conjecture, that the religions of Brahma and Lama, are much connected with that of the Neſtorians. Some few ceremonies in their divine ſervice, which I will deſcribe, will juſtify this ſuppoſition; but, before I proceed, I will give my readers ſome account of the Lama doctrine, which is contained and diſperſed in innumerable writings, part of which I have collected from ſeveral tranſlations of little Mongalian, theological authors, which I was fa⯑voured with from the Proto-pope, or high-prieſt of the chriſtian Kalmucks, at Stawropal, Andrew Tſchubofſkoi, who is perfectly acquainted with their language. I ſhall add, alſo, what I could gather from converſation, reſpecting this extenſive, fabulous doctrine, that a bet⯑ter knowledge may be formed of it, and that it may be ſeen how far the Brahma faith correſponds with it. I have been informed, that the Indians, of which there are no ſmall number in Aſtrachan, not only acknow⯑ledge the Kalmucks to be their brethren, but pay, alſo, divine honour to the Kalmuck idols, called Burchan Ajuſcha and Dſchakdſchimmum, which have a great [238] reſemblance to thoſe of the Tangutians. If this be true, it is an inconteſtable proof, that the religion of Lama originated in India, and that the Kalmucks are deſcendants of the Mongols.

In the beginning, we have the whimſical ſtory of the Lamas, about the ſyſtem of the univerſe. They ſay, that at firſt, without any creator, there was an immenſe ſpace, or chaos, whoſe width and depth a⯑mounted to 6,160,000 leagues, or beres, (each league or bere being equal to about ſix Engliſh miles); but, they fix no time of it's commencement. In this ſpace gathered ſome gold-coloured clouds, which ſhed a rain ſo abundantly as to form the unmeaſurable ocean. That an immenſe thick froth grew upon the ſea like milk, (the dimenſions of which, is alſo expreſſed in their books), and that from this froth iſſued all living creatures; and that from men their idols were pro⯑duced. That a ſtorm next aroſe, from certain parts of the heavens, which gave exiſtence to a column extend⯑ing from the upper-region, to far below the deepeſt bottom of the elementary ocean. They call this co⯑lumn Sjumer Sula, and ſay, it's circumference amounts to ſome thouſands of leagues, or beres. About this column, as an axis, move the habitable worlds. But how the ſun, moon and ſtars came to exiſt in the up⯑per-regions, their treatiſes give no account. They ſay the ſun conſiſts of glaſs and fire, and is ſome hund⯑red leagues in circumference. And, as they hold glaſs [239] to be one part of the body of the ſun, and have burn⯑ing-glaſſes among them, it is plain that ſuch glaſſes muſt have been known a great while in the eaſt. They deem the moon to be ſomewhat ſmaller than the ſun, and make it conſiſt of glaſs and water. The number of ſtars they fix at ten thouſand millions, which will lead our aſtronomers to judge of their other calculati⯑ons. The ſun, in the Kalmuck ſyſtem, has an orbicu⯑lar courſe round the middle part of the great column, or Sjumer Sula. This column ſhews four ſides, each of a different colour, one ſilver, one ſky-blue, one golden and one of a deep-red. When the ſun caſts it's beams on the ſilver-ſide,, the dawn begins, and if, by degrees, the bright-blue is illuminated, noon makes it's entrance, but it is not perfect noon till it ſhines up⯑on the golden ſide; and when it throws it's light on the deep-red ſide, the twilight commences, and continues till the ſun hides itſelf from our view behind the co⯑lumn, and this is night.

About the column, they ſay, roll, in general, four great worlds, and between theſe the ſmaller ones, joined in couples, of which they reckon eight, and all the ſtars and worlds are made faſt to it with a great iron-ring. Among the greater worlds ſtands ours on the right, which they call Sambu-tup, as a great num⯑ber of trees grow on it, unknown to them, but called by them, Jſambu-barachia. Oppoſite to this, is a world inhabited by giants, (Ulyum ſchibiytu-tup). The [240] third world they call Ukir-edlektſchi, on which there are only cows; but, in the fourth world, Mun-do-uto-tup, exiſt a people without ſouls. They live 7000 years without ſickneſs, and when the time of their diſſo⯑lution draws near, on the ſeventh day preceding their end, they hear a voice calling them by their names, and announcing their dead-warrant. They then call their relations and friends together, and take a laſting farewell.

They deſcribe all theſe worlds as very extenſive, to which no other creature, except their idols, can paſs, and theſe can go from one world to another. Beſides theſe worlds, they reckon ſeven other abodes, eight little oceans, and many clouds, on which reſide their aerial ſpirits in the vaſt vacuum, and ſay that the whole ſyſtem is encompaſſed and faſtened, as it were, together, by an enormous iron-ring; giving and relating circum⯑ſtantial ſtories of all theſe brainleſs chimeras.

In our world, they ſay, ſpring four principal rivers, from four mountains, to which they give the following remarkable names, Ganga, Schilda, Baktſchu and Aipera. Between theſe four mountains feeds, for four months in a year, an elephant, of which they relate many wonders, and call him Gaſar-Sakikjin Kowen, or the protector of the earth. This elephant is ſome miles long and high, and white as ſnow, has thirty-three red heads; on each head, ſix trunks; on each [241] trunk ſix fountains, and upon the fountains ſix ſtars; each ſtar beſet with a virgin-offspring of their aerial ſpirits. On the central head of the elephant rides the great genius of the earth, called Churmuſtu Tenga, when he goes from one place to another.

Immediately after the creation of the world, men reached a very diſtant age, lived nearly 80,000 years, were fed by inviſible gifts of grace, (Kidi-Dianar) and had the wonderful power of raiſing themſelves to heaven. All this time tranſmigration was general, and all men were Chubulgans, or regenerated. This rege⯑neration in human bodies, according to the doctrine of the Lamas, is a thorough change from common mor⯑tality, (a rare prerogative allowed only to the clergy, ſome perſons of a holy diſpoſition, and to the nojonns or princes). It was alſo in that age, or epoch, when the thouſand Burchans, or idols, whom the Kalmucks worſhip, went to heaven.

This was followed, ſay they, by an unlucky epoch. The earth produced a certain ſweet-taſting herb, like honey, which is called, in their books, Schime, and there was a voracious man who eat thereof, and made it known to all the reſt. Hereby, all the holineſs of mankind, and their power of flying to heaven, ceaſed, their longevity and gigantic ſtature decreaſed, and they lived a great while in darkneſs, till the ſun and ſtars took their origin.

[242]After men had fed a certain time upon this plant, it failed, and they were forced to ſupport life with a ki [...] of earth-butter, that looked ruddy and had a very ſweet taſte; but this failing alſo, they had recourſe to a ſort of ſedge (ſala-ſemis), and began to ſtore it up and make proviſion of it; but inſtead of it's encreaſ⯑ing, it fell entirely away. This is the epoch when vir⯑tue took her flight from the earth, and adultery, mur⯑der and injuſtice made their inroads among men. They began at this time to cultivate the land, and choſe the wiſeſt among them as their chief. This chief divided the land and other goods among his people, and is, at laſt, become the Khan.

In this ſtate, according to their opinion, lives the preſent age. During the paſt golden-age, ſeveral of the thouſand Burchans or idols of that happy period, appeared on earth, in order to reform mankind. For example, at that time, when the life of man had de⯑creaſed to 40,000 years, appeared in the empire of Enednai, (which, perhaps is that of the Mogul), Ebdef⯑chi-Burchan, (the deſtroyer), and preached religion. At the decline of human life to 30,000, he was followed by Altan-Dſchidakti-Burchan, (the golden unalloyed). When life fell to 20,000 years, came Gerel-Sakiktſchi-Burchan, (the preſerver of the world), ^(*) and after [243] him, Mafsuſchiri-Burchan, upon this world; and, fi⯑nally, when the limits of man's age dropped to one hundred years, the great Burchan, and founder of the doctrine of Lama, Dſchakſhimuni came down and preached to the ſixty-one nations of the earth. But it is to be lamented, ſay they, that each liſtened to the doctrine with different ears, it having produced as many religions and languages as there are nations.

The following are the revelations of Lama, on fu⯑turity. The age and alſo the form of men, and all [244] created beings, will, from our times, ſo much de⯑creaſe, that horſes will not be bigger than hares, and men will be ſcarce three feet high, will live but ten years, but will be marriageable at five months old. After this, ſickneſs and death will come among them, and carry off the greateſt part. Before all people die, the aerial ſpirits will make themſelves heard, and it will rain mortal ſhots. A few of the remaining dwarfs, frightened out of their ſenſes, will take proviſion for ſeven days, hide themſelves in dark holes, and the land will be over-ſpread with carcaſes and blood. After this, will follow rain, which ſhall waſh away all the dead bodies and every impurity into the deſart ocean; and a fragrant ſhower will cleanſe the earth; then ſhall the heavens rain down cloaths and food for thoſe whoſe lives were ſpared, and they ſhall begin to live virtu⯑ouſly, and a vaſt ſpace of time ſhall paſs, during which, the limits of human life ſhall extend to 80,000 years. When this epoch ſhall be fulfilled, the age of man ſhall begin again to decreaſe, a regenerated Burchan, bright with holineſs, called Maidarin, ſhall come into the world, and his greatneſs and beauty ſhall be won⯑derful and ineffable. Men will be aſtoniſhed, and en⯑quire of him the cauſe of his form and beauty, and when the idol ſhall have told them, that he has attained ſuch perfection by a victory over his paſſions, abſtain⯑ing from all murder, and practiſing all virtue, men will become converts and attain a ſimilar perfection by the ſame means.

[245]This is the Kalmuck ſyſtem of the univerſal reſto⯑ration of all things; but, from the different epochs and changes which the world, in their opinions, is ſtill to undergo, they ſeem to have a very extenſive but confuſed idea of it; inſomuch, that it was with diffi⯑culty, I could form any tolerable comprehenſion of their ſyſtem. To the epochs of the world, whoſe con⯑tinuation is very unequal, they give the univerſal name of Galahp, derived from the word Gal, fire, as moſt will end with fire. They reckon ſeven times ſeven epochs, which are thus to terminate. After every ſeven firy epochs, one will follow ending with a flood, and after all theſe, one ending with a hurricane. All theſe ſmall diviſions of time are divided into four chief periods, called Achu-Galap, Ebdereku-Galap, Choaſim-Galap and Toktochu-Galap. In the firſt diviſion, or peri⯑od, containing the time wherein the life of man, from an extent of 80,000 years decreaſes to ten years; are two epochs. In the ſecond all mankind will die, for this reaſon, they call it Ebdereku-Galap, the de⯑ſtroying period; after this, a time will come, when the earth ſhall lie waſte, and this is called Choaſim-Galahp, or the waſte period, and then a ſtorm or hur⯑ricane, ſhall bring departed ſouls from hell, which is the laſt period; but the time and place is not plain⯑ly aſcertained.

I have mentioned the time when the Burchans or gods of the Kalmucks were raiſed from mortality. [246] They are ſo numerous, and they relate ſo much of each, as to fill whole folios; but their tales are ſo con⯑fuſed and the Kalmuck Clergy ſo ignorant, that it is dif⯑ficult to make out the context, without tranſlating and comparing many of their writings. So far it is certain, that theſe Burchans have originated from holy men, or men pretending to holineſs, who have aſſerted that they paſſed through many bodies before they were re⯑generated, or from fabulous perſons or deformed idols of ſome other more ancient religion. I could not ab⯑ſolutely find out whether, beſides theſe Burchans, they admit of ſome higher ſupreme being, or, whether they account for the firſt operative principles in the manner of Epicurus; but, from what has been related, I ſhould rather ſuppoſe the latter to be the caſe. Good and bad events are governed by Burchans, and good or malignant aerial ſpirits. There ſeems to be degrees of rank among their Burchans, at leaſt they differ much from one another in power and occupation. I think they look upon Burchan Abida, as the moſt exalted of the whole, though the ſuppoſed founder of the ſuper⯑ſtitions of Lama, Dſhakſhimuni is more popularly wor⯑ſhiped and known. It's image is almoſt always ſeen among the Kalmuck idols.

It is remarkable that almoſt all their idols, except the Dalai-Lama and ſome other prieſtly-looking images, are repreſented as women, with the flaps of their ears long and pierced, having Indian ornaments, and their [247] feet turned underneath themſelves, or elſe in a ſitting poſture; yet, I ſaw ſome ſtanding images with many arms and faces. The Kalmucks repreſent, alſo, their god of hell, or Erlik-Chan, as ſtanding.

Moſt of their idols are ornamented with a tippet, which is a badge of dignity worn by the prieſts of La⯑ma; ſome with the bell and ſceptre, which the prieſt commonly holds in his hand or lays before him, du⯑ring ſervice. Propitious Burchans, ſeem to be painted [248] with a certain ſweetneſs and beauty of countenance, but the malignant ones, inſpire fright and horror. I was lucky enough to meet with a great collection of theſe idols in Jaizkoi-Gorodok, which were caſt hol⯑low in braſs, ſtrongly gilt and ſo neatly executed as to equal, if not ſurpaſs, the engraved figures. The foot of each Burchan is made hollow, cloſed with a plate of copper and contains a little cylinder, made of aſhes, wrapped up in a piece of paper, or the upper baſt of the birch-tree, with a Tangutian inſcription, or, at leaſt, a ticket with ſuch an inſcription. Theſe cylin⯑ders of aſhes are, undoubtedly, conſidered as relicks of the holy bodies which the Burchans once inhabited. I ſhall have occaſion to mention, preſently, that the aſhes of ſuch perſons, as are ſuppoſed to be regenerated, are ſent to the chief pontiff, or high-prieſt of this reli⯑gion, at Thibet. It is alſo certain, that if once the cover of the foot of ſuch an image is opened, the Kal⯑mucks conſider it as profaned, and it is no longer ſale⯑able. They purchaſe with avidity, and at high rates, from the Ruſſian merchants, thoſe Burchans which, at the deſtroying of the Sjungorian, or Dſungorian, pow⯑er, became the plunder of the Kirgueſe, trucking with the Ruſſians for other things; provided the foot of ſuch idols has not been opened and the inner part has remained untouched.

Beſides their idols caſt in metal and ſilver, they have figures painted or drawn upon Chineſe paper or [249] ſtuffs, of which I have ſeen ſome very fine. I have met with ſome, alſo, impreſſed in clay, which had the appearance of ſigillata, and were painted red or plated with gold. Such images they keep in copper-caſes, in pyramids, made for that purpoſe.

I cannot ſpeak more poſitively of the abodes of their burchans, than that they reſide on the worlds and ſtars, or in other places of the celeſtial ſpace of the Kalmuck-ſyſtem. Dſchakſhimmuni is ſaid to dwell upon earth. Erlik-Khan, has his place in hell, of which he is the mighty prince. Some have given them abodes in the uppermoſt parts of the firmament, to which there is a golden-road over a high mountain. At the top of this mountain rides a cloud, apparently made of jaſper, on which reſides the aerial ſpirit Adabaſchi. At the bottom of this mountain are a great number of foxes, which attack the ſouls of the wicked, and thus detain them from the bleſſed abodes, which are the principal paradiſe. Underneath the golden-road is a ſilver-one, which leads eaſtward to that peculiar abode where Abi⯑da-Burchan enjoys a perfect reſt. Next follows a cop⯑per-road, leading to the abodes of thirty-three pro⯑pitious ſpirits, near which, is a place for the ſouls of children and thoſe that have not been truly meritorious. At the loweſt bottom of the mountain is an iron-path that leads to hell.

[250]Before I proceed fatrher, I'll relate two inſtructive ſtories of the Kalmuck Mythology. They report of Burchan Dſchakdſhimmuni, that whilſt his ſoul inhabited the body of a hare, ſeeing a man almoſt ſtarved with hunger, he ran voluntarily into his hands, and, that the genius of the earth admired this noble act ſo much, that he placed the form of a hare in the moon, as a monument to after-ages; and the Kalmucks believe now they ſee a hare in the moon.

The other ſtory is curious, and to the beſt of my re⯑collection, there is a ſimilar tale in the life of an Indian idol, told in the letters of a jeſuit-miſſionary. I muſt obſerve firſt, that the Kalmucks imagine that there are always certain, evil ſpirits and agents of their gods of hell; hovering in the air. I mean the lower claſs of Kalmucks and their clergy; for there are, as in other countrys, Kalmuck-freethinkers, who laugh at ſuch abſurd ſtories. They believe, that a miraculous dragon, called Luu-Chan lives, during winter, in the water, and riſes into the air in ſpring, when ſome of the infernal agents ride upon him. When it lightens, they ſuppoſe this dragon opens it's jaws, and when it thun⯑ders, that the deputy of hell is whipping him, till he roars again for pain. Once it happened, that as the three burchans Mafsuſchini, Dſchakdſhimmuni, and Mai⯑darin, were ſitting together praying and in profound devotion with their eyes ſhut, according to the Kal⯑muck cuſtom, a malignant ſpirit drew near, and let [251] fall his excrements into the ſacred bowl, which perſons of ſacerdotal dignity commonly have before them, when praying. As ſoon as theſe holy men ſaw this, they deliberated together how they ſhould act. If they threw this venemous matter into the air, all beings there, they thought, would periſh; but if they poured the infected bowl over the earth, every living creature would inſtantly be killed, they agreed therefore to ſwal⯑low the contents themſelves: Mafsuſchini and Maidarin drank firſt, and as Dſchakdſhimmuni was to finiſh the bowl, the ſediment was ſo thick as almoſt to ſtrangle him, ſo that he looked blue in the face. For this rea⯑ſon, he is ſtill repreſented in pictures with a blue face, but in caſt figures, with a blue, lacquered cap.

I have, more than once, mentioned thoſe aerial ſpirits which make the greateſt figure in the fabulous doctrine of Lama, and obſerved that they were generally called Tengri. We may compare them to guardian ſaints and Roman-catholic angels. Some are propitious, others malignant ſpirits, and both are very much in⯑ferior to the burchans, neither are they ſuppoſed to be immortal. They are divided into various claſſes, ſome of which I am unacquainted with, and have ſtated abodes near and in the worlds, and in the great vacuum. They know the ſize of every one and how long each will live. Near our earth are four, ſuch evil ſpirits called Macharaſa, who are only 125 fathoms high. Above theſe, dwell the thirty-three ſpirits already mentioned, who are 150 fathoms in height, and one, among them, [252] called Tejus-Bijas-Chubilgakſam, is ſaid to be taller ſtill. Another ſort called Chublgakſam-Edlekſchi, are near three miles in height and live 10,206,000 years; there are ſome others 6,771,000 miles high, whoſe tedious, barba⯑rian names I ſhall omit. A day to theſe ſpirits, is as fifty-years to men, and they live 500 years compoſed of ſuch days. As wonderful as are the properties given them, ſo wonderful is their propagation; ſome generate only by kiſſes, embracing themſelves, others by ſmiling at each other, by a wink and a glance, and ſome only by friendly looks. As far as I could learn, in converſation with ſome Kalmuck prieſts, they believe that all bad weather and unlucky events, among which are numbered the above-mentioned, bad epochs of the world, ariſe from malignant ſpirits, who nevertheleſs, muſt yield and ſubmit to the power of Tangutian prayers and exorciſms. But the propitious ſpirits, whoſe faces are bright, and white as ſnow, and burchans are intereſted in the good of the world and mankind.

An eſſential, indeed the chief article, in the religion of Lama, and which muſt have the greateſt influence upon morality, is their doctrine of the ſtate of the ſoul after death, reſpecting hell and rewards. I collected many accounts on this ſubject, and ſhall communicate the moſt probable.

Hell is ſituated in the middle region between hea⯑ven and earth. Here the matter is very indefinite, [253] but the following is more circumſtantial. In a large city, encompaſſed with white walls, wherein there is a continual beating of kettle-drums, the mighty bur⯑chan, Erlik Khan, unlimited governor of hell and judge of departed ſouls, holds his reſidence in a ſpacious palace.

On one ſide of the city, is a large ocean of urine and excrement, which conſtitutes the firſt abode of the damned. Over this ſea paſſes the above mentioned [254] iron-path, which has this admirable quality, that, if wicked ſouls, who have treated the principles of their religion, or the Gurban Erdeni ^* with contempt and have not reſpected the clergy, wander through it, the path underneath their feet will become ſo thin as to break under them and precipitate them into the place of puniſhment. Farther on is a ſea of blood, in which many human heads are ſwimming. Theſe are they, who, during their life, had ſowed diſcord and occaſi⯑oned blood-ſhed among friends and relations. Farther on ſtill, is a remote, white land, where many of the damned endeavour to dig for water and food, with⯑out being able to find it, and whoſe hands and arms are ſo much wounded in digging, that they drop from their ſhoulders with exquiſite pain, but grow again, to renew their torments. Theſe are people who gave, whilſt they lived, neither meat, drink nor cloathing to the prieſts. The other diviſions of hell, which are, in number, eighteen, are ſituated round the palace of Erlik-Khan. In every diviſion, the wretched ſouls ſuf⯑fer a degree of puniſhment proportioned to their offen⯑ces, each diviſion having an infernal, (Eſed) and devils to torment the damned. Their devils are repreſented with all ſorts of frightful forms, black, with the heads [255] of goats,, lions and unicorns. In one diviſion of this place, many run about without feet, for having de⯑ſpiſed the doctrines of the prieſt-hood. In another are ſitting thoſe rich perſons who, though living in abun⯑dance, never adminiſtered to the wants of the poor. Theſe are in an un-heard-of condition; are transform⯑ed into monſters whoſe heads and bodies are each as big as a mountain, and their neck as ſmall as a thread. In other places, dreadful pits of unremitted yells, the cruel are tormented, thoſe who have either killed their parent, elders or other men, cattle or even inſects; for, according to the tenets of Lamaiſm, it is ſinful to kill, purpoſely, even the ſmalleſt vermin that infect and plague mankind, and they are of opinion, that the ſouls of all animals, ſo deſtroyed, will, when in tranſmigration they inherit other bo⯑dies, ſeek revenge. In other diviſions, are multitudes of mockers of religion, whoſe ears ſome little devils are alway filling with burning ſoot, that, eager as they may be, they may not hear each other. Wretches, who have robbed the the ſacred ſhrines of burchans, burnt ſpiritual books, or have proudly lived, are, in a particular place, thrown into boiling caldrons filled with ſerpents. In other places, the damned are con⯑tinually roaſting upon gridirons, or ſpitted with a lance. There is, alſo, a place where there are one hundred and eight hooks faſtened in a cloud of or⯑dure, on which ſinners are hung, and when the wind blows them down, they fall on ſharp points, which [256] lie underneath, and tear their bodies to pieces. Yet ſtill a voice is heard, that calls them back to life, and their puniſhment continues ſome hundred millions of years, conſtantly torn to pieces, and their limbs beat and pounded in mortars. There are, alſo, dark, yet red-hot, infernal dungeons, and here and there a cold hell, where ſinful men are frozen to death, before the riſing or the ſun, and are dragged about by furies till they are thawed to life again, in order to renew their torments. Farther on, is a place, where thoſe who ſpent their life in dreſs and lived luxuriouſ⯑ly are puniſhed. A pack of little devils are here employed in forging curry-combs; and, when redhot, tearing therewith the backs of ſinners. Laſtly, there is another place, where delinquents are ſqueezed between iron blocks, in form of mill-ſtones, and always brought back to life, to be ſqueezed to death again. There is a place where cattle, inhabited by human ſouls, have ſinned, and alſo ſuffer the puniſhment of eating and drinking, without ever being ſatisfied. It is not to be wondered at, that they ſhould fix an abode in hell for cattle, for, according to the Lama faith, they have the high prerogative of entering into the paradiſe of burchans and aerial ſpirits. But this well-policed hell, has no place of puniſhment for luſt, which is very little thought of, wherever this religion prevails.

[257]Great and holy Lamas, who have been zealous in their office and obtained a victory over all their paſ⯑ſions, paſs, when they die, by the aid of their prayers only, (of which the words om ma wie pad, me chum have the greateſt influence), immediately into heaven, to the abode of the burchans, where they enjoy perfect reſt with other godly ſouls, and exerciſe themſelves in divine ſervice, till the time of their regeneration comes.

Common ſouls, are received by the infernal agent, who brings them before Erlik-Khan, where they they muſt account for their paſt actions and juſtify themſelves: if they can do this, ſo as to leave no doubt of their righteouſneſs, they are ſent with honour to the bleſt abodes, he ordering a flying cloud, with a golden throne, to tranſport ſuch a ſoul. Thoſe who, living on earth, did much good and much evil, have a good burchan for their advocate, to plead their cauſe with the in⯑fernal deputy, Erlik-Khan, who orders the large book to be brought, where all the actions of men are regiſ⯑tered, and examines it; and ſhould the cauſe be doubtful, he takes a ballance, writes the good againſt the evil, and pronounces ſentence accordingly; and the ſoul, ſo ſentenced, is delivered to the bur⯑chans, or good, aerial ſpirits, or to the keeper of that diviſion, where they are to ſuffer puniſhment; or they may, poſſibly, obtain a paſs to the world again; for Erlik-Khan, has a power to ſend ſome departed ſouls [258] back to their bodies, and uſes this means to preach re⯑pentance, through them, to the living part of men. And it is from theſe returned ſinners, that they receive all their accounts of hell and a future life.

Infernal puniſhments, according to the opinion of Lamas, are not eternal. For each a time is fixed, but, by it's aſtoniſhing duration, it is almoſt equal to eternity. However, it often happens, that the omniſcient burchan Chomſchin-Bodi-Sada, who is repre⯑ſented nearly like Dsſhakdſchimmuni, has mercy on depar⯑ted ſouls, or that ſome holy, deceaſed Lama, being miſ⯑lead to hell, by miſtake, ſhall, by ſome Tangutian prayers, releaſe part of the tormented ſouls, and bring them back to happier abodes. But, it may be eaſily conceived that ſuch as have offended, either the clergy or the burchans, cannot be partakers of this fortu⯑nate delivery, as their puniſhment is never to be ſhortened.

There are alſo ſome books wonderfully endowed with the power of freeing wicked ſouls from their meri⯑ted puniſhment, provided they have, in the courſe of their lives, diligently read them, copied them or or carried them about with them. Among theſe, may be numbered, one containing certain unintelligible revelations, entiltled the myſtery of Dſhodbo, the con⯑tents of which, I am unacquainted with; yet, I have had accounts of the miraculouſneſs of this book, in [259] expelling diſeaſes, lengthening of life, baniſhing ma⯑lignant ſpirits and delivering ſinners from the ſevereſt, infernal puniſhment.

It is evident, from the accounts here ſet forth, on which, perhaps, I have rather dwelt too long, and which contain all the principal points of the tedious religion of the Lamas, that, like other ſuperſtitions, they are the fabrick of prieſts, and illuſions by which they contrive to awe the ignorant multitude. Thanks to ſuperſtition, ſo common to ignorant men, for the great ſucceſs of the ſacerdotal tribe, in eſtabliſhing this religion, whereby they multiply their number, by encreaſing the advantages of their clerical ſupremacy over the diſciples of Lama, and enſlave even nobles and princes!

The order of this idolatrous prieſthood, which is honoured with the general title of Churbrak, cannot be better compared than to that of the Roman-ca⯑tholicks. Their head, or Delai-Lama, may be conſi⯑dered as the Pope, except that his ſoul is continu⯑ally wandering from one human body to another, and is deified. The reſidence of this famous man, whom the infatuated Kalmucks adore as a burchan, living up⯑on earth, is called, by the vulgar, Baraun-Tala; by others, Pontal, or, Batalai-Laſſau. According to the reports of ſome Pilgrims, diſpached from the Kalmuck horde to this court, in matters of religious concern, [260] or who travel hereby their own, holy zeal, the cloiſters of Delai-Lama, into which no woman is ſuffered to enter, are ſituated on a high mountain, which has been dug through in ſuch a manner, that a ſtream iſſues from it's centre. It is ſaid to contain 700 pa⯑god, or temples. The reader may form a better idea of the dreſs of the Delai-Lama from the repreſentation in the plate, taken from a brazen figure of this burchan, than by any deſcription I can give. The pointed cap is like a monk's hood, on the outer robe, and can be let down. The colour of this holy man's garment is always yellow, and they conſider this, and red, as the moſt ſacred of all colours.

This deity they ſuppoſe to be immortal, becauſe the ſoul of the living Delai-Lama, when dead, paſſes into the body of his ſucceſſor. Sometimes they have two of equal eminence and power, into both of whom the ſoul of the deceaſed Delai-Lama has paſſed. Hence aroſe the Chutuchta at the head of the La⯑maiſm of China, and the Delai-Lama of Thibet. The Delai-Lama, which implies a deity at an immenſe diſtance, is honoured as a God, all his words are con⯑ſidered as oracles, he appoints the chief prieſts and nominates princes, he lives in a pagoda, on the mountain Potata under 29 deg. 6 min. N. latitude and 25 deg. 58 min. W. longitude from Peking; he eats no fleſh, ſits always croſs-legged on an altar, anſwers queſtions, and bleſſes ſupplicants. 'His fol⯑lowers,' [261] ſays Tooke, ‘aſſert, that his ſoul, after the death of his body, paſſes into another human body, born exactly at that time, and this man is the new Delai-Lama; others ſay, that they keep a young man in the pagoda, during the the life of the Delai-Lama, who is to ſucceed him.’

‘This religion ſeems not of very ancient date, it is a mixture of the ſuperſtition of the old Schamans with the chriſtian religion, as taught by the Neſto⯑rians, the firſt Delai-Lama, being no other than Preſter John, the catholicus, or Neſtorian patriarch, who travelled into this country to convert the ſa⯑vages. The Schaman religion is the oldeſt in India, the god of which, the Mongols call by the name Dſhakſchimuni, and can be no other than the well-known Schaka or Schekia, who was born 1017 years before our Saviour, and was called, after his apo⯑theoſis, Fo: as chriſtianity then became more and more corrupted, it at laſt vaniſhed away, and was here abſorbed in the religion of Lama.’

Every prince has, in his horde, a Vice-Lama, ſu⯑bordinate to the Delai-Lama, and appointed by the court at Peterſburgh. This perſon performs in his diſtrict, what the Delai-Lama does over all the church. He ordains prieſts, forgives ſins, beſtows bleſſing and gives amulets to the dying.

[262]Among the Turgout Kalmucks is a Lama, or ſub⯑ſtitute of Delai-Lama, whoſe place is always filled by one of the preſent, higheſt order of the clergy. When the Sjungor uluſſes arrived, they had alſo a Lama; but I could not learn, with certainty, whether there are two ſuch patriarchs, at preſent, in this horde, now united under the Ruſſian ſceptre. The garments of theſe Lamas differ in nothing from the former, except that the upper-robe has ſleeves, which they put on in cold weather. They are, alſo, conſidered by the ſilly Kalmucks as burchans, and are worſhiped with out⯑ſtretched arms as burchans are. The benediction a Lama gives, conſiſts only in laying his hands upon the perſon he bleſſes; but I have ſeen many brazen images of Dalai-Lama himſelf, repreſented with that diſplay of the hands wherewith the Zordſhi, or Biſhops, give their benediction.

The following is a repreſentation of one.

The Lama has a uluſs to himſelf, conſiſting of one hundred tents of prieſts, and receives, beſides an annual tribute, horſes and camels from the lower clergy.

The higher order of the clergy, next the Lama, are the Zordſhi, which may be tranſlated Biſhop. Their [264] garments uſed to be yellow or red, and they have ſleeves in the under-garment; yet like the Lama, they wear the red order continually, and go like the latter, without breeches, that they may not defile themſelves, by touching any part of their body, upon certain, neceſſary occaſions.

Common prieſts, who compoſe the lower claſs of regular clergy, are called Gellung, and live diſperſed throughout the whole horde; ſo that to every 150 or 200 tents, may be reckoned one who performs divine ſervice for his aimak. A gellung has nothing to live on but the little preſents his people make him on feſtival and prayer-days. Theſe prieſts, and all thoſe that belong to them, are exempt from ſecular offices, and import-duties. A gellung ſalutes his prince only by turning up his whiſkers. Every gellung has many ſcho⯑ſars, (Mandſhi), whom he inſtructs in theology and the Tangutian language, and who ſing with him in idol-worſhip, and learn to uſe the ſacred inſtruments. He has, alſo, a deacon or aſſiſtant, called Gadſul, to which office he may appoint any of his ſcholars, but a man cannot be ordained a prieſt, but by a par⯑ticular form, and at the reſidence of the Lama.

They have another eccleſiaſtical officer, correſpon⯑ding with our ſexton or veſtry-keeper. He attends only on the higher order of the clergy, and takes care of a magnificent tent, erected for the aſſembling of [265] the burchans. This lower order of prieſts, does not differ from the Kalmucks in dreſs, except that their heads are ſhaved all over, not wearing that tuft of hair behind, which the lay Kalmucks do. The heads of all their ſcholars are ſo ſhaven at their admiſſion, and with a degree of ceremony. Neither have they any fringed appendage to their caps. Like the ſupe⯑rior order of clergy, they take a vow of celibacy and continence, but a Mandſhi, or ſcholar, before he is ordained, may, with ſpecial commiſſion of his prieſt, quit the ſacred profeſſion and marry.

As divine ſervice, among the Kalmucks, is per⯑formed throughout in the Tangutian language, every prieſt muſt, at leaſt, be able to read it, and be provi⯑ded with thoſe prayers and ſongs, requiſite for every hour and day and occaſional ſolemnity; and in every prieſt's habitation is found a variety of Mongalian writings, in which are deſcribed the idolatrous cere⯑monies. Beſides the offices uſed in ſickneſs, funerals and the like, they have certain ceremonies of exorciſm, called Tarni, by which they pretend to cure diſeaſes. Medicine they know little of; their chief remedies are prayers and certain amulets. Each Kalmuck wears an amulet, hanging on his bare boſom, ſewed up in a piece of leather, which he receives from his prieſt. I have ſeen large pieces of cotton-ſtuff, on which was printed all kind of inſignificant, coloured fi⯑gures, to each of which was added a Tangutian exorciſm, [266] with an inſcription in Mongalian, for what purpoſes it it may be uſed. The prints that make theſe figures are kept by the prieſts.

No prieſt can be without the aſtrological books of of his religion, from which he aſcertains auſpicious days and hours for certain acts and events, which every Kalmuck applys to his prieſt for information in, before he undertakes any thing of conſequence. It is confi⯑dently ſaid, that the flight of a certain, white owl (ſtrix nyctea) which inhabits the ſteps, foretells good or ill fortune, according as it flies, to the right or left. If, when they ſee him, he directs his flight to the left, they endeavour to turn him to the right, and fancy this will give a change to fate.

The largeſt and moſt important book, in the poſ⯑ſeſſion of the Kalmuck prieſts, and which is ſaid to contain an accurate and full account of their idols, is entitled Bodimer: but, I heard of an abridgment of the whole mythology of Lama, called Ertjunzjun-Toali.

The common prieſts, have their idols with them, in their tents, which are generally made of white felts, it being ordained, that a burchan ſhall inhabit no other; they are kept, with their religious books, in ſmall trunks and are put under the bedſted; but the beſt burchans are ſet up in caſes above. Before the [267] trunks, in which theſe idols are, ſtands a little table, or altar, on which are always eight or nine little, ſilver bowls, and a lamp or lanthorn. On the fire-hearth is an⯑other bowl made of iron, faſtened on an iron bar ſtuck into the ground. Into this bowl, the gellung pours ſome drops of all the liquor he intends to uſe in ſacrifice and never drinks any from any bowl, but his own, without pronouncing theſe words, Om a chum. That is ‘may all be pure; God give abundance, and proſper this drink.’ They have ſeveral other laconic forms of prayer. In this burchan's tent ſleeps the gellung and his gadful, or ſome of his ſcholars.

The Kalmucks keep three days in each month ſacred. As theſe days are regulated by the moon, and they begin the month with the new moon, their firſt, general ſup⯑plication-day, is the eighth after the new moon; the ſecond is on the fifteenth, and the third on the thirtieth. On ſuch day no zealous Kalmuck eats or drinks any thing but what is made of milk, and ſpends beſt part of the day near the tent of his prieſt, to which they are called to worſhip in the morning, by the beating of a kettle-drum, and a kind of wooden or copper trumpet. None dare come near the tent, but the nobles and the learned. A multitude, of both ſexes, ſits round about, and drops from roſaries, which they hold in their hands, one bead after another, pro⯑nouncing at each, Om ma wie pad, me chum, with their [268] eyes ſhut, or rehearſing, with a low voice, another ſhort form of prayer, which they have by heart, without knowing it's meaning. The more quiet the people are, the more noiſy is the prieſt in worſhip, and, with his red robe and crown of roſes, he cuts no ſmall figure. Long ſtrips of cotton, on which are written Tangutian prayers and faſtened at the end of high poles, are ſtuck up before the tent, by way of flag; from an opinion, that the waving motion of ſuch prayers in the wind, are as efficacious as a recital of them. (See a repreſentation of a tomb ſo adorned in the plate Kalmucks). Before the burchans burns a light, and the above-mentioned little bowls are filled with dried meat, cheeſe or other victuals; there are alſo ſome large bowls filled with the ſame. They alſo lay down before the altar of the burchans, grits, milk &c. It is a crime among the Kalmucks, to paſs by ſuch a bowl, and I ſaw they were diſpleaſed with me, for ſo doing. Rich prieſts place ſmall, frankincenſe candles upon their altars, before the burchans, but poor ones are content to ſtrew, at the commencement of their prayers, which laſt the whole day, ſome frankincenſe on burning cow⯑dung, ſupported by an iron trivet. On theſe days the burchans, in ſplendid dreſs, are expoſed to the people, by placing them on the trunk before the altar, and ſome ſmall rags of green, red, or yellow ſilk, are hung over their ſhoulders, by way of cloak; add to this, all the paper-paintings which the prieſt poſ⯑ſeſſes, are hung up within the tent, as banners of their ſaints.

[269]The prieſt himſelf, who performs the ſervice or the gods, ſits in his uſual place bare-headed, his breaſt uncovered, the red, ſacerdotal tippet over his ſhoulders, and a roſary about his neck. Before the prieſt ſtands a little bench, on which is another bowl with water, an elegant metal bell, with a handle, a ſmall ſceptre, which repreſents the bur⯑chans, and two plates; near it ſit, or ſtand in a row, his gedſul and his ſcholars, choriſters, all bare-head⯑ed, with red bands over their ſhoulders. Theſe bawl out the hymn as loud as poſſible, from written ſheets before them, or play on inſtruments, to increaſe the noiſe of the ſingers. The inſtruments conſiſt of great kettle-drums; a kind of hautboy, made of a human ſhin-bone, with a copper vent-hole and a mouth-piece which gives a ſhrilling ſound; and an inſtrument in the form of plates, uſed by the Janiſſaries, which the prieſt himſelf, ſometimes takes in hand. It may eaſily be con⯑ceived what an odious noiſe theſe muſt make, eſpecially at the court of Lama, where there is a vaſt many of them, joined in chorus by a multitude of prieſts, holding their little bells in their left-hands and the ſacerdotal ſceptres between the two middle-fingers and thumb of the right-hand. I ſaw ſome metal bells uſed on ſimilar occa⯑ſion, the clappers of which were leather bags filled with ſand, but which gave a ſtrong ſound. The Lama, is ſaid to ſit motionleſs ſurrounded by his biſhops during the ſervice. The biſhops give the bleſſing, with ſuch a geſture as is repreſented in the idol. See p. 263.

[270]Theſe noiſy ſongs are, ſometimes, interrupted by ſtill prayers, muttered by the prieſt, with open, out⯑ſtretched arms, cloſed eyes and frequent bowing. They have ſome variations in their ceremonies for public feſtivals, which are probably enjoined and for particu⯑lar reaſons, but to become acquainted with all the minutiae, would require the ſtudy of many years and a knowledge of the Tangutian and Mongol language.

The melody of theſe people, particularly their ſoft and tender muſic, has ſuch a long-drawn, mournful tone, and, at the ſame time, ſo diſſonant, that a good ear is nearly as much hurt with it, as with old French muſic. Beſides the votive, amorous and plaintive ſongs pro⯑duced every day by their poets, they have likewiſe a great number, recording the romantic atchievements of their heroes, with monſtrous, legendary ſongs of chivalry and acts of wizzard proweſs; dragons with 10,000 heads and gigantic animals without a name; which they ſing in a loud voice, with very little ca⯑dence, and frequently interrupted by a ſudden, dead ſound. The time is, now and then, varied, but they are chiefly a monotony, ſung by rote and divided into ſtrophes.

The following is an elegy, ſung in the perſon of a new married woman to her huſband,

[272]The following expreſſes the paſſion of a Kalmuck maiden, for her lover; tranſlated from their language.

But to return to the Kalmuck religion. Beſides the three days of ſupplication mentioned, the Kalmucks have three, great feſtivals, celebrated with all thoſe amuſements the reader will be more acquainted with. The firſt, and moſt important, is that on which they begin their new year. They call it Zachan-Sara (the white day), or Chaburun-Turn-Sara (the firſt day of ſpring) and it commences with the firſt new moon in April; the next important begins with the firſt new moon in June, and is called Sſaga-ſsara or Suni-Turun-Sara, (the beginning of ſummer). At this time, for a fortnight, the Kalmucks take as much flour to their prieſt as they can afford, of which they get round cakes made in the form of a cone. I ſaw, in the tents of [273] ſome gellungs, brazen moulds of them, ornamented with ſome inſignificant characters, and faſtened on wood⯑en-handles. When they are baked and have ſtood ſome time before the burchans, they are thrown into water. When a man is ſick, even at other times of the year, he gets a figure made in dough, either a man, an ox, a dog, &c. agreeable to the advice of his gellung, or ſome holy book, which, having ſtood ſome time before the burchan, is to be thrown either into the fire or water, in order to appeaſe the malig⯑nant ſpirit who has cauſed the ſickneſs. Theſe figures are called Zaza.

The third feaſt is in November, or begins with the new moon in December, and is called Uwilin-Turun-Sara (the commencement of winter) or Sulain-Sara, as they burn at this ſolemnity a kind of holy candles, brought from Thibet by the pilgrims, which candles thev call Sula. I was not made acquainted with all the particular ceremonies, uſed at theſe feaſts, but I will mention a few.

There is nothing more peculiar in the Kalmuck worſhip, than the uſe of a little veſſel, ſimilar to our coffee-pots, called Bumba, which on every day of public ſervice, is wound round with a white band, ornamented with pheaſants and peacocks feathers, and ſet upon the altar of the burchans near the lanthorn. This little pot is filled with ſweet water to which the Kalmucks [274] attribute a miraculous virtue. On ſuch feaſt and prayer-days, every faithful Kalmuck has a few drops of this water poured on the palm of his hand, which he de⯑voutly and confidently licks up, as a preſervative againſt many evils. Gellungs generally give a cup of this ſweet water to the ſick, and one, for a trifling piece of money, which I laid upon the altar, would fain have perſuaded me to drink ſome of it, ſaying it would do me good. Every thing that is placed upon the altars is ſacred, and muſt not be touched, eſpecially on feſ⯑tivals. When I attempted to take hold of a burchan, to inſpect it cloſer, the gellung ſpread his ſilk rag, in which he uſed to wrap up his idol, over my hands, and if he had either eat or drank, he would have waſh⯑ed his hands and turned up his beard, before he touched the burchan.

Still more remarkable are a ſort of ſacred pills, brought from Thibet. It is the noble only and the rich, who can obtain them from the prieſts, in caſes of ſickneſs, and when death ſeems almoſt unavoidable. They are taken to alienate the ſoul from this world and ſanctify it. Theſe pills are black and about the ſize of a pea. I thought they might have contained ſome opiate, but was told they were of a purgative kind.

At the tents of ſome old prieſts I ſaw a kind of pray⯑er-wheel, repreſenting a parti-coloured cylinder, with iron axles, containing written prayers; it is fixed on a [275] wooden frame, and turned quickly round with a ſtring wound about it, each motion of a written prayer being conſidered as efficacious as a rehearſal of it.

Little, cylindrical boxes, or wheels, full of written prayers, wound round a ſtick, are diſtributed by prieſts to ſuch enthuſiaſtic perſons, as through a holy rage have determined to go on ſome pilgrimage, or lead a holy and ſolitary life. Such hermits and pil⯑grims muſt not eat any thing but meat, grits or roots. After this pilgrimage, they conclude their life in ſancti⯑ty, placing over their tents a blue flag, on which are written ſome Tangutian prayer, and as often as they mean to pray, they turn about their cylinder. After every turn of the wheel, they pronounce the ſix words, om ma wie pad, me chum.

It is alſo frequent among the Torgouts, that huſ⯑bands, weary of life or crazed with holineſs, ſhall forſake their wives, their children and eſtates, in order to be prieſts. In this caſe, they paſs through a kind of novice⯑ſhip, that is, their hair muſt be cut and they muſt be conſecrated gedſulls. All the Dsjungorians I aſked, told me, there was no ſuch thing among them; but many of the Torgouts, with a holy zeal, aſſured me ſuch an action was pleaſing to God.

There are alſo among the Kalmucks, certain ma⯑gicians or Schamans, not belonging to the prieſts or [276] or holy people, but rather abhorred than revered; and their arts, which are prohibited, are often dreaded. Theſe are men and women of the lower claſs of people. The former are called Uduguhn, and the latter Boh. They exerciſe their ſorcery once a month, the night when the moon is new. They ſteep a particular plant in a bowl of water, with which they firſt ſprinkle their tents; next they take certain, dried roots in each hand, kindle them, and, with extended arms, make all kind of geſtures and violent contortions of the body, repeating the following ſyllables, Dſchi Eje, Jo jo, till they fall into an apparent phrenzy, when they begin to anſwer queſtions, reſpecting things loſt and future events.

I ſhall now proceed to thoſe profane cuſtoms, con⯑nected with their religion. When a woman is in la⯑bour, they ſend for a prieſt, who attends near the tent and reads ſome Tangutian prayers. During this time, and till the child is born, the huſband of the woman is to ſpread a net round his tent, and continually fight the air with a cudgel, crying Gart tſchetkirr! (avaunt devil!) in order to keep off the internal agent. A⯑mong the rich, they place ſuch a number of praying prieſts, on guard round the tent, as are ſufficient to drive off the malignant ſpirits. During the birth, they have not only women but men-midwives, who take the child and waſh it. The women are ſo ſtrong that they are often ſeen to ride out the ſecond day af⯑ter [277] they are brought to bed, and to follow their buſi⯑neſs; but, they cannot appear, otherwiſe than with their heads veiled, or be preſent at divine worſhip, till after forty days.

The common claſs of Kalmucks give their children the firſt remarkable name they hear, or the name of the firſt man, or animal, which the father meets after the birth. But the wealthy get the prieſt to ſtudy for a name from ſome holy book, which, if the father is not pleaſed with, he alters. When a boy has reached four years of age, he undergoes a kind of confirmati⯑on. He is brought before the gellung, who reads ſome prayers over him and cuts off ſome of his hair, which the mother is to pick carefully up and carry home, wrapt up with an amulet, hanging on her back. I could never find out the meaning of this ceremony.

Not having had an opportunity of being preſent at any of the marriages of the Kalmucks, I can ſpeak only from hear-ſay. Many betroth their children, not only in their earlieſt infancy, but in the womb; this be⯑trothing is, however, ſacredly performed and condition⯑al, that ſuch a one has a boy and ſuch a one a girl. The young couple are joined at fourteen years of age, or later. Two years before marriage, a bridegroom is allowed to take many little liberties with his bride, but ſhould pregnancy happen before the day of marriage, an atonement is made to the bride's parents, by pre⯑ſents. [278] Prior to the wedding, the bridegroom agrees with the girl's father, as to the portion he is to have with her, which conſiſts in a certain number of horſes and cattle; and the father of the young man, in re⯑turn, preſents the bride with a new, white felt-tent, ſome houſehold furniture, bed-cloaths and ornamented feet-pillows, covered with cotton or ſilk, and laced. The gellung is conſulted, with reſpect to the day of marriage, and he ſearches, by aſtronomical calculati⯑ons, for a propitious one. The new tent is then erected; the bride, with her parents and relations, goes to the bridegroom, who, with the gellung or prieſt, accompanies them to the tent, where he reads ſome few prayers and orders the bride's treſſes to be undone and braided in the manner of married women, into two tails. He next takes the caps of the married couple, retires with them and his gadful without the tent, ſmokes them with frankincenſe, ſays a prayer, then returns to the couple, bleſſes them, gives the caps to ſome of the perſons preſent, to put them on the bride and bridegroom's head, and the ceremony concludes with a feaſt. For a certain time the bride is not per⯑mitted to leave her tent, and no one is ſuffered to ſee her, but her mother and the married women of her ac⯑quaintance.

At the nuptials of princes, great entertainments are given. A large banquet is prepared, and thoſe who carry the eatables to table, which are ſerved up in large, [279] wooden veſſels, are preceded by a herald or carver, riding on a fox-coloured horſe, ſplendidly dreſſed, having over his ſhoulders a long tippet of fine, white linen, and his cap trimmed with black fox or otter⯑fur. On the wedding-day, all the prieſts of the uluſs read prayers, and the day is concluded with a variety of amuſements, as horſe-racing, wreſtling, ſhooting with the bow, &c.

The cuſtomary diverſions of this careleſs and blith⯑ſome people, conſiſt in horſe-racing, in which the girls bear a part; ſhooting with the bow for wagers; wreſtling, in which they ſtrip themſelves to their trow⯑ſers; (indeed, the men and boys, among the com⯑mon people, in ſummer-time, go about naked, ex⯑cept a pair of trowſers); hearing the maidens ſing; pantomimic dances, and muſic performed by the girls, who almoſt all of them play on the lute, the kit and the viol, a kind of hurdy-gurdy and the pipe. The ſubjects of their ſongs are the fabulous ſtories of gigantic chivalry, heroic tales, and amorous ditties; but their melody is harſh and diſmal. The Kalmucks alſo play at cheſs, cards and tocadillo, much as we do.

The nobles eat upon a carpet ſpread on the ground. One cuts all the meat and the reſt ſeize on it with their bare hands; when it is ſwallowed, they drink the liquor it was boiled in. It would ſeem that cleanlineſs with them was a ſin, being forbidden to waſh any veſ⯑ſel [280] in river-water, of courſe they wipe them only with a piece of old ſheep-ſkin, on which they wipe their hands when dirty. As they dare not put any living creature to death, their habitations abound in all kinds of ſmall vermin.

According to the principles of the Kalmuck religion, polygamy is prohibited, but this law is not ſo rigor⯑ouſly obſerved by nobles and commanders, who, ſome⯑times, will have two or three wives. Such examples, however, rarely occur. Divorces are likewiſe unlaw⯑ful, yet they happen frequently among their people of diſtinction. If a Kalmuck has any reaſon to be diſſa⯑tisfied with his wife, or if ſhe is herſelf deſirous of a divorce, the huſband has only to ſtrip her of her cloaths and the divorce takes place; but he, ſome⯑times, even whips her away. If he wiſhes to acquit himſelf honourably, he invites her relations to a ban⯑quet, gives his wife a ſaddle-horſe and as much cattle as he pleaſes or can afford, and ſhe quits him, with her friends, taking this property with her.

When a Kalmuck dies, the gellung is made ac⯑quainted with the moment in which the deceaſed gave up his ſpirit. He then judges in which of the twelve hours, wherein they divide their day and night, the deceaſed left the world and ordains accordingly, from a book, the manner in which the corpſe is to be car⯑ried and to what diſtrict of heaven, and the relations [281] carry it accordingly. There are ſix different modes of burial, one is to lay the corpſe, naked, in the open ſtep, with the head towards the eaſt and the body in a ſleeping poſition, ſupporting the head with the right arm. At the head, on both ſides, and alſo at the feet, they ſtick poles into the ground, on the top of which are faſtened ſquare pieces of ſtuff, ſcribbled over full with Tangutian prayers, which reſemble flags and are called prayer-flags. The ſecond mode is to carry the corpſe to ſome adjacent wood, dreſſed in the dreſs of the country. In both the above caſes, the body is left to be devoured by wild beaſts, by which proceſs, they ſuppoſe the ſoul continues it's tranſmigration. The third way is to throw the body into the water, this they do with children; the fourth, to bury it; the fifth, to cover it with a heap of ſtones; and, the ſixth, to burn it. In the firſt five modes, in which they bury the common people and lower order of prieſts, they ſtick one flag as near the body as they can, bu⯑rying with them the weapons of the deceaſed and ſome few preſents. Beſides theſe prayers of the dead, a kind of ſoul-maſs is read by the prieſt for the deceaſed, by order of the parents, agreeable to the hour in which he gave up his ſpirit. Theſe maſſes continue forty-nine days, at the expiration of which, three prayer-flags are given to the parents by the gellung, which they alſo ſtick near the corpſe and then leave it to itſelf, without any farther notice. Some, however, will continue the maſſes a while longer. From the [282] hour of departure, they judge whether the deceaſed was a good or a wicked man, and if the body remains un⯑moleſted by the beaſts of the foreſt, they conſider it as an ill omen.

Burning the dead, is only practiſed for the ſuperior ranks of clergy or lamas, the nojons or princes, and a few holy people, whom they believe in the regenera⯑tion of. The aſhes of ſuch bodies are carefully col⯑lected, mixed with frankincenſe and ſent to the Delai-Lama, at Thibet, who ſends word back into which paradiſe the new-born ſoul is arrived through the fire, without being metamorphoſed into an animal. In or⯑der to burn them, a vaulted oven is built with holes, in one of which the body, full-dreſſed, is laid upon a bench with three feet. The fire blazes out of the oven and is fed with the fat of the body till it is en⯑tirely conſumed. The following mode of interring a Kalmuck lady, I learnt from one of their own people. Prince Ondou, who is ſtill living, had a Truckmenian wife, who begged the favour, when dying, to be bu⯑ried in the ground according to the cuſtom of her an⯑ceſtors. In conformity with her requeſt, ſhe was buri⯑ed up to her ſhoulders, but over her bare head a felt⯑tent was erected, and the corpſe ſo left.

Auguſt 12, 1769. Collecting theſe accounts and committing them to paper, detained me till the 12th of Auguſt, when, leaving all my heavy baggage be⯑hind [283] me, I left Jaizkoi-Gorodok for Gurjef, one of the moſt ſouthern diſtricts of the Ruſſian empire, and abounding with natural curioſities.

It is remarkable, that as I travelled ſouthward, I met, among the meadow-plants of the low-lands, ſe⯑veral I had not ſeen before, and which are only to be looked for in the warmer diſtricts of Europe and Aſia. On ſo varied a ſcene, I could not but recollect the opinion of Strahlenberg, who, with great reaſon, con⯑ſiders the croſs-mountains, which riſe from the Glaci⯑al-ſea to the fartheſt arms of the Ural, as the natural boundary between Europe and northern Aſia. The ſtep-mountains, as an immediate continuation of the decreaſing and dividing Ural, which extends itſelf be⯑tween the Jaik and the Samara, ſouth-weſt towards the Wolga, naturally ſeparate here the more northern diſ⯑tricts, exhibiting a hilly and fertile land, overſpread with European plants, from the Aſiatic ſteps.

About five miles from Jaizkoi-Gorodok, is a very extenſive and buſhy valley, where, among other ſhrubs, I found the wild-roſe, the falſe acacia and the greater meadow-ſweet, which ſhot forth rods ſix feet long, and which, in this country, are uſed for ſwitches, on account of their toughneſs and flexibility. This place abounded with the curious inſect called the ſtinking beetle, (tenebrio variabilis) and a kind of earth-moſs that covers the loamy ſurface of the ſtep, [284] in whole tracts, as with a white-grey bark, which breaks where the ground is particularly dry. The Coſſacks call it Semljanoi chleb, (earth-bread), and ſay that many a perſon, out a hunting, has loſt his life, by being obliged to feed upon this moſs. About the Jaik, they uſe it as a medicine, but here they are ignorant of it's uſe.

Continuing my journey to the next guard-ſtation, I there changed horſes and had time to look about me, where I found the Awrag, a water-arm, full of all forts of wild-fowl, and abounding with the bee-eater (merops). Water-tortoiſes are here uncommonly large, I ſaw one half an ell acroſs the back, and this ſize is ſaid to be the leaſt. The common people be⯑lieve that the bite of this animal is venemous, and that it generally bites people while bathing, in their pri⯑vate parts. It is often found caught in fiſhing nets and baſket-work. I found here, alſo, a particular kind of ſhells, which grow together in bunches, and which, to my knowledge, are found no where but in the Wolga, the Jaik and the Caſpian ſea, (Mytulus polymorphus).

We ſaw now, for the firſt time, upon the Jaik, up⯑wards of twenty of the ſpoon-bill (pelecanus onocrotalus), which the natives call baba, (old woman). They were very buſy, fiſhing. It is well known, yet de⯑ſerves to be repeated, that theſe enormous fowls aſſem⯑ble [285] in lakes and bays, form a long row, and ſpreading out their wings all at once, drive the fiſh together, which they ſwallow up in great quantities. Their time of fiſhing is about dawn and noon, and it is eaſily to be conceived how much a flock of ſuch fowls will thin a water of fiſh. They weigh here from eighteen to twenty-five pounds each, meaſure from the point of the bill to the top of the tail about five feet, and from the extremity of one wing to the other, when ſpread, about nine feet and a half. If theſe fowls are diſturbed, they ſoar high in the air, and fly in long, croſs-waving lines; and, even when ſhot at, ſhew not the leaſt con⯑fuſion. From their whiteneſs they glitter as they fly, and though they live on fiſh their fleſh is not indeli⯑cate. I enquired here about the wandering graſs-hop⯑pers, which are natives of the deſarts of Aſia, and was told that they did not come regularly every year, nor did they always make their way from the ſame quarter; ſometimes they come from the Kirguiſian, ſometimes from the weſtern, Kalmuck diſtrict, and ſometimes from the north, up the river Jaik, and return the ſame way. They arrive in the time of hay-harveſt, and deſtroy many a fine crop.

To the next guard-ſtation, I rode all night, and it was very ſultry, owing to the burning of a Kirgueſe ſtep, which had continued ten days, and though very diſtant, had heated the air all round; before the moon roſe, we ſaw the light of this fire at eaſt, and, in the [286] day-time, it could be perceived by a column of ſmoke, on which ſeemed to reſt an oblong cloud.

In this diſtrict, on a ſalt-ſtep, eſpecially where the liquorice grows, is found a uſeful plant, (ſerratula a⯑mara), a kind of bitterwort, which contains ſo ſtrong a bitter, that it is preferable in medicine to the cen⯑taury. The Coſſacks aſſured me, that they had ra⯑pidly and radically cured cold fevers with it, and that it would cure in cattle the dangerous bites of badgers, wolves and mad dogs, by ſcrewing it powdered upon the wound. Buxbaum ſeems to have deſcribed this plant by the name gacea erecta, minor latioribus folüs. As there is plenty of water-fowl in the river Jaik, the inhabitants are peſtered with birds of prey; the com⯑mon ſea-eagle (ſkopa), the large, black eagle (aquila oſſifraga) and another little ſpecies, with a ſpotted head, hitherto undeſcribed, (aquila leucorypha), have neſts almoſt in every high tree.

About noon, on the 15th of Auguſt, I reached Kalmykowa, a ſort or guard-ſtation, at the diſtance of about 209 miles from Jaizkoi-Gorodok, where I ſtaid a few days, to make ſome little excurſions in the neighbourhood. Here have been found, in the Jaik, elephant and buffalo-ſkeletons, proofs of ſome old change in the globe, of which I ſhall ſpeak further hereafter. They have preſerved in Kalmykowa, a piece of elephant's tooth calcined, a monſtrous ele⯑phant [287] hip-bone, which weighed fifty-four pounds, and the upper-part of an extraordinary, great buffalo's ſkull, with both horns, which meaſured, between the bottom-part of the horns, one foot three inches, Pariſi⯑an meaſure.

On the ſteps here grow abundantly, the ſtinking ground-pine, (camphoroſma monſpeliaca), which had not the leaſt ſmell, and ſome ſmall pieces of wormwood, on which the numerous flocks of the Kirgueſe feed in winter; theſe plants continue green under the ſnow, which falls but lightly in this diſtrict and is ſoon gone. The ſheep dig them readily from under the ſnow, and the Kirgueſe look out for winter-quarters, where this plant abounds; for the ſheep will not touch it in ſum⯑mer. Here grows, alſo, the rhapontic, of which the Coſſacks make an excellent medicine, by ſteeping it in baandy, to which it gives a pale, yellow colour. In Gurjef, they collect the young leaves in ſpring and eat them, as a cure for the ſcurvy, which there reigns. A decoction of it, is a wholeſome purgative, and they ap⯑ply it in a variety of diſorders. The Kirgueſe uſe it to dye yellow with, and I am perſuaded it would ſuper⯑cede the uſe of the foreign turmerick.

There is here, the ſcorpion-ſpider, (phalangium araneoides), known by all the Kalmucks, by the name of bychorcho or mandſchi-bychorcho, and dreaded by them exceedingly, it's bite not only occaſioning extra⯑ordinary [288] pain, but a great tumour, which, though ſlow in operation, is certain death. This inſect lives in holes under ground, but creeps about in the reeds and often awakes, with a bite, thoſe imprudent peo⯑ple who lie down to ſleep where they are. The Kal⯑mucks and all thoſe who have ſeen it alive ſay, that it will, in the twinkling of an eye, run up a ſtick, held before it, and bite the hand. It's common antidote and cure is ſweet oil, but the Kalmucks uſe ſome ſu⯑perſtitious remedies againſt it. They ſay, the wound ſhould be firſt bathed with the milk of a young woman, ſuckling her firſt child, and who lived chaſtely before marriage; that then the heart and lungs of ſome black animal, either a dog, a ſheep, &c. ſhould be applied warm as taken from the body, to the wound. I ſaw an old Kalmuck, who had two marks on his breaſt, made by the bites of theſe animals, and who ſaid, he was waked from his ſleep by the violence of the pain. Nay, the Kalmucks dread this inſect ſo much, that they will deſert a diſtrict where they have ſeen them. I had once an opportunity of getting one from the cape of Good-Hope, but never knew it's violent effects till now. The Kalmucks ſay, that there is another ſuch black inſect, living under ground and ſpinning large and extenſive webs, but I could never learn further particulars about it.

Upon the height of Kalmykowa, two good journeys on horſeback from the Jaik, is an extenſive ſalt-lake, [289] forming many little bays and marſhes, but has no flux. It is called Kamyſch-Samara. It's borders are full of bull-ruſhes, on whoſe roots the wild boars feed. On this lake are eight or ten floating iſlands, the tex⯑ture of which is compoſed of all ſorts of roots, ruſhes and willows, and inhabited by wild boars, ſwans and divers ſorts of water-fowl.

Auguſt 17. I returned to the fort, and the next day took a ride to ſee the Kirgueſe, who were quartered in the neighbourhood, and, at ſun-ſet, took notice of the race-hare, or flying-hare (mus laculus). This animal appears rather flying than running. The fleeteſt horſes of our Coſſack eſcort, could not keep up with them. With a ſingle leap they will jump over twelve feet of ground, and they ſcarce touch the ground but we ſee them again in the air, till they ruſh into their holes.

Day was juſt declining, when we reached the Kir⯑gueſe, who were quartered on a ſtep or waſte, under large, felt tents, on a delightful ſpot. The ſtep-nati⯑ons ſhew, commonly, a great deal of taſte in chooſing their abodes and in this reſpect, enjoy a pleaſure that, in ſome meaſure, atones for their unſettled, vagrant way of life. Theſe people ſeemed more alarmed at us, than we at them. We ſaw no one about the tents, but a few old women and ſome naked children, run⯑ning about a kitchen-fire; the young women had ab⯑ſcodned, [290] and the men were buſy in collecting their diſperſed flocks. As ſoon as their buſineſs was done, both maſters and ſlaves gathered themſelves about us, and finding us peaceably inclined and of an agreeable diſpoſition, received us with a ſmiling countenance and treated us with a delicious, though ſouriſh, drink, made of mares-milk^*, and called by them, kumyſs, of which no one could drink a bottle without being intox⯑icated; a proof of this I ſaw in one of my attendants. Notwithſtanding the good reception we met with and the hoſpitality they ſhewed, we did not think it proper to take up our night's lodging among them, therefore, about duſk, having inſpected into what was moſt re⯑markable in their families, we took our leave and re⯑turned from whence we came; where, for the firſt time this year, I ſaw the unexpected comet, which the Coſſacks, with their lynx eyes, had diſcovered three nights before, and on the 15th inſtant, (Aug. 1769), a little below the hyades.

[291]As I owe my readers every account I could collect about the Kirgueſe, I now take the opportunity of re⯑lating to them all I could learn.

This nation of people calls itſelf Kergis Chaſak, by which name it is known among the Ruſſians and Kal⯑mucks. They, themſelves, gave me the following account of their origin. They formerly lived among the Turks alone, and propagated and extended them⯑ſelves as far as the river Euphrates, where they had their own particular governors; the laſt of whom, Saſyd-Khan, had been in this diſtrict. This prince deſigned to make himſelf maſter of the Turkiſh throne, and, with this view, murdered two of Mahomet's couſins, by his daughter Fatima, called Chaſan and Chuſſan. I am not much verſed in Turkiſh hiſtory, but was I ever ſo much, and whether the ſtory be found true or falſe, I ſhould relate it, as I heard it: it is a piece of Kirguiſian antiquity. When the deed had tranſpired, the Turks roſe in arms, and drove him and all the Kirgueſe from their ſettlements. After this, they ſat down in the neighbourhood of the No⯑gayan Tartars, but having alſo fallen out with theſe people, they were again driven from the ſtep or deſart which they now occupy. This horde, afterwards, threw itſelf under the protection of Kergis-Khan, whoſe ſubjects were neighbours to the Sungarians and Chineſe, (probably the Mongols), and this prince employed them in wars and military expeditions; but [292] they forſook him alſo, and retired to their preſent a⯑bode, with the name of Kergis-Chaſak, which implies a warrior of Kergis-Khan. They believe, indeed, that all the Ruſſian Coſſacks derive their name and military diſcipline from them.

Theſe Kirgueſe, like all other Aſiatic nomades, live in felt-tents, not at all different from thoſe of the Kal⯑mucks, but in being cleanlier and ſo ſpacious that of⯑ten above twenty perſons may ſit commodiouſly in ſuch a tent. In hot weather, both Kirgueſe and Kal⯑mucks remove the ſide-covering of the tent, in which ſituation it repreſents an alcove. The Kirgueſe, with reſpect to their perſons and dreſs, are much cleaner than the Kalmucks. As they are moſtly people of property, they keep a great quantity of cattle, live well, in their way, and are well attired. Whatever is requiſite for their cloathing and conſiſts of manufac⯑tured ſtuffs, they procure from Ruſſian merchants, Aſiatic caravans, or elſe by robbery, though, to do them juſtice, they become daily more and more honeſt, and trade now, by way of barter. The articles they make for themſelves, are fur-dreſſes, leather, a kind of coarſe camblet, felt-covers of ſheeps' wool, which they neatly mix with wool of various colours, all ſorts of leather and ſome trifling things. They chiefly tan their hides as do the Kalmucks, with ſour milk, and this leather, ſo tanned, compoſes moſt of their mens' dreſs. In ſummer-time, they wear different kinds of [293] ſmall, upper garments, made of hides, the hair of which is outwards, and ſuch a coat they call jirgak. Some⯑thing more diſtinguiſhing, yet frequently worn, is what they call daka, which conſiſts of the ſkins of unborn colts of different colours, ſo ſown together that on the middle of the back and both ſhoulders, the manes fall as an ornament in the ſeams. Some, alſo, wear ſum⯑mer-cloaths of well-tanned goat ſkins, without the hair, theſe they call kaſkan and are much worn by the Jaikian Coſſacks, being ſoft and impenetrable by the rain. Their method of preparing them is as fol⯑lows. Having cut off the hair from the ſkin, they moiſten it with water and lay it, rolled up, in ſome warm ſpot, till it begins to be offenſive and the hair looſens at the roots; they then ſcrape the ſkin with a blunt knife and afterwards dry it to a certain degree. If the ſkin be thin, they lay it in ſweet milk; if thick, in ſour or turned milk, tanning it therein for four days, but ſcraping it every day, in order to make it more ſupple. It is then dried in the ſhade and worked with the hands and feet till it becomes very ſoft. After this it is ſmoked, dried again and finally dyed with a yel⯑low-brown colour, made from the roots of rhapontic, or the thrift (ſtatice Tartarica), called, by the Kal⯑mucks, tuſchutt, and, by the Ruſſians, ſheltoi koren, that is, yellow-root, which are boiled in allum-water; ſome are ſaid to mix a little ſheep-fat among the boil⯑ing roots, in order to fix the colour faſter. When the dye is cold, it is ſaid to be of the conſiſtency of a ſoft [294] pulp, which they ſpread over each ſide of the ſkin twice or more, letting them dry each time, and then work and render them ſoft again. Such ſkins may be waſhed very often, and not loſe their pretty, yellow-brown colour. They uſe the ſame root for dying wool, but for a red colour they uſe genuine cochineal, which grows in ſome part of the ſtep, in ſome low-lands, about the Jaik, and is called by them kyſil-bujaf. They have, among them, ſome few ſilver-ſmiths and black-ſmiths, but they are ſuch inexpert workmen, as to be able to make only ſome, rough, trifling things. They are at a loſs to conceive to what perfection thoſe Europeans have arrived, who are able to manufacture needles and thimbles: all fine trifles of this denomi⯑nation, are bartered for by them at Orenberg and ſome other places on the frontiers. Having no coin among them, they eſtimate every thing by the value of a horſe or ſheep, and their cuſtomary, ſmall coin are wolves-ſkins and lamb-ſkins.

The man's dreſs, beſides the upper-garment, con⯑ſiſts in a cotton under-one, and a ſhirt of blue linen or kitaika, which is open, like a bed-gown, from top to bottom, but lapped over before, and, with other cotton cloaths, tied faſt about the body. They gird their upper-garments with a leather belt, on which hangs, uſually, a veſſel with gun-powder and a bag full of ſhot and balls, moſt of the Kirgueſe of property carry⯑ing fire-arms with them. Some make their own pow⯑der, [295] digging ſalt-petre from the old tumuli, and it is ſaid to be ſo good, that they need only waſh the ground from it and may then mix it with ſulphur and coals. The ſulphur, and indeed the chief of their gun-powder, they purchaſe from the Aſiatic caravans.

The mens' ſummer-caps are commonly made of felt and covered with ſtuff. They are worked with the needle with threads of various colours, and lined with velvet. The top is conical, and the cap has two broad flaps that hang down on the cheeks, or turn back or up occaſionally. Their winter-caps are lined with fur. Beſides theſe, they wear, as do the Tartars, upon their ſhorn heads, for they ſhave their heads clean, leaving whiſkers on the upper-lip and a pointed beard on the chin or at the corners of their mouths, a kind of black cap worked with various coloured needle-work. The boots which the rich wear, are made by the Bu⯑charians, and ſold very dear. They are made of aſs's ſkin, very clumſy, and after a peculiar model; the ſoles are full of large points, are encompaſſed with iron, and are generally ſo badly made, that no Euro⯑pean would be able to walk in them, without falling down at every ſtep. The Kirgueſe, however, ſeldom walk, but are almoſt always on horſeback; ſo that moſt of them are bandy-legged and very bad walkers. They are of middling ſtature, rather handſome fea⯑tured when young, but among the old, their faces are jewiſh and frightful, and, owing to their indolence, [296] their bodies are thick. 'Being well clad,' ſays Tooke, ‘in furs and two or three garments at a time, they are ſeldom hurt by the frequent falls they get from their horſes.’

‘The trappings of their fine horſes employ their thoughts almoſt as much as that of their perſons; having always elegant ſaddles, handſome houſings and ornamented bridles. They are generally armed when on horſeback, and carry a ſhort, twiſted whip, about an inch thick, like that of an Engliſh poſtili⯑on. When they go a hunting, they wear ſchalvars, or long trowſers, which reach up to the arm-pits, into which they cram all their cloaths; and a Kir⯑gueſe, in this dreſs, may be taken, at a diſtance, for a monſtrous pair of breeches on horſeback.’

The common dreſs of the women, is a blue ſhift, not open before, which is the only covering they wear at home, a pair of long breeches, bands, with which they wrap up their feet and legs, flat-bottomed ſocks, and a white or parti-coloured piece of linen, with which they veil their heads. The following is their uſual head-dreſs, which they call dſhaulok. They firſt lay a kind of ſtuff, three or four ells in length, over the head, bringing the ends of it down the ſides of the face, about which they braid their hair in two treſſes. The ends of this ſtuff they croſs under the chin and carry them up over the head again, ſo that the ends [297] hang down on the ears on each ſide. This put on, they wind a ſlip of ſome ſtuff, four or five ells long and about two hands broad in the middle, round the head, ſo as to form a kind of cylindrical turban. When they are better dreſſed, this dſhaulok is of finer ſtuff, and ſtriped; over the blue ſhift, they wear another of ſilk or ſome rich, Bucharian ſtuff, ornamented with artificial flowers; they next put on a tippet of the ſame colour as the dſhaulok, about the ſhoulders, and, over the whole, a wide Bucharian bed-gown, or chalat. They carefully cover their boſom with a thick hand⯑kerchief, worked with the needle in various colours, within their under-ſhift. They have, alſo, another ornamental dreſs, called dſchadſhbau, conſiſting of a full and long train, or tail, faſtened to the hind part of the head, under the dſhaulok. Above this flows to half way the leg a double tail, the ſize of a man's thumb, covered with velvet and ornamented at the end with a thick fringe of black ſilk. Married wo⯑men divide this tail, bringing it over the ſhoulders on each ſide, but girls ſuffer it to hang down the back. Round this tail hangs, down to the knee, a kind of ſtring, with all ſorts of varicoloured fringes, corals,, beads and other things which make a jingling noiſe. They alſo wear a cap under the dſhaulok, which, round the face, is ornamented and hung full with little, ſilver coins or medals. 'Sultanas or princeſſes,' ſays Tooke, ‘and daughters of illuſtrious perſons, diſtin⯑guiſh themſelves by the necks of the heron put into [298] the hair, raiſed into an ornament upon the head, in the ſhape of a horn, and the plumage is very beauti⯑ful. Theſe, alſo, wear ſilk cloaths, or rich ſtuffs, or fine cloth ſet off with gold lace and loops, or faced with fur; and even velvets are very common with this claſs of ladies.’

The Kirgueſe are Mahomedans, which religion, they ſay, they brought with them from Turkeſtan; they, therefore, take as many wives as they can rob or pay for; 'and many,' ſays Tooke, ‘keep concubines, who are treated, in every reſpect, like wives, their children alſo, being reputed legitimate. The mo⯑derate price for a marriageable girl, to be taken as a firſt wife, is about fifty horſes, twenty or twenty-five cows, a hundred ſheep, a few camels, or elſe a ſlave, with a cuiraſs, or coat of mail. The poorer ſort find wives at a cheaper rate, and the rich pay much dearer. The ſecond wife of a married man coſts much more than the firſt, the third and follow⯑ing ſtill more. Common people, of courſe, are obliged to be contented with one wife, and think themſelves very well off, if they can get that one, as they are often under the neceſſity of ſtealing her from ſome of the neighbouring nations. The Kalmuck women are the moſt ſought after by the Kirgueſe, conceiving that nature has endowed them with ſin⯑gular advantages for pleaſure, and that they preſerve the marks of youth longer than the women of other [299] nations; inſomuch that the rich, are very willing to marry them, if they can be prevailed on to embrace Mahomedaniſm; on the contrary, they hold the Perſian women in ſo little eſtimation, that they give ſuch as they take in marriage to their ſlaves. The eſpouſals conſiſt in a public declaration of the agree⯑ment made between the contracting parties and then a prieſt repeats a prayer. The evening before a wo⯑man is ſent for to ſhave off all her hair but that of her head, and on the day of marriage ſhe is carried in a carpet to the bridegroom's tent, and the wedding celebrated in a hut built on purpoſe by the bride's father. Previous to conſummation alſo, the girl is carried about on a carpet to her companions, to take leave of them, in which ceremony, ſhe is attended by ſeveral others ſinging all the way. If, unfortu⯑nately, it is diſcovered that ſhe was not a maid when married, the gueſts, the day after, kill the bridegroom's ſaddle-horſe, tear his wedding-gar⯑ment in pieces and ill-treat the bride. In this caſe, the father-in-law is obliged to give ſatisfaction to the offended huſband; but, on the contrary, if all is right, the rejoicings continue for ſeveral days, no⯑thing is thought of but eating and drinking, danc⯑ing, ſinging, chatting, wreſtling, horſe-racing and ſhooting at a mark. At the two laſt-mentioned di⯑verſions, conſiderable bets are made, and the new-married couple give prizes to the conquerors, of ſhewy apparel, trinkets and ſometimes horſes. On [300] breaking up the feſtivities, the gueſts make preſents of cattle and other things to the married pair.’

‘Such as have more than one wife, give each a ſe⯑parate jourt, or tent, where ſhe brings up her chil⯑dren after her own liking. The more children they have, the happier they eſteem themſelves, and are the more honoured by their huſbands; whilſt ſuch as prove barren, are ſo little thought of, that the huſband often makes them the ſervants of thoſe who encreaſe his family. The rich and great give pom⯑pous names to their children; ſuch as Nour Hali, or the great light; Ir Hali, or Erali, the exalted man; Doſt Hali, the powerful friend; Batyr or Bagatyr, the hero; Temir Ir, the man of iron; Beg-Hali, the pow⯑erful prince, &c.’

According to Mahomedan cuſtom, it is difficult to ſee their women; the richer Kirgueſe have a ſeparate tent for their wives and one for themſelves. They are zealous enough in their faith, yet very ignorant, hav⯑ing but few Mahomedan prieſts among them. Their horde, however, has now an achan or chief prieſt, who generally goes about with the khan.

In their way of living, they obſerve ſtrictly the law of Mahomet, of courſe, they eat no impure cattle. Of wild animals they eat only the antilope, the ſtep-horſe and the different kinds of deer. This meat com⯑poſes [301] their chief food, though they, now, accuſtom themſelves to food made of flour and groats, which they procure from the Ruſſians by bartar. In eating ſuch things, they mix them with ſour milk or the ſpi⯑rituous extraction from mares milk, called kumyſs.

Tooke, who frequently ſpeaks from the authority of Gmelin, who travelled into Siberia ſome years before Dr. Pallas, and as ſuch, I ſhall often quote him, ſays, ‘that mutton is their ordinary winter-food, and they will live on it for many months together. At times, they will eat other food, but it is only at occaſional feſtivals and for the ſake of variety. In winter, they drink broth, to quench their thirſt, and from the quantity of boiled meat they uſe, have plenty of this liquor; they are fond of fat, regaling them⯑ſelves often on ſuet or butter, which they eat without bread or any dreſſing. They are, in general, extra⯑vagant eaters, or, more properly, devourers; four men, returned from hunting, often conſuming, at one meal, a whole ſheep and leaveing nothing but the bones.’

‘The habitations of the Kirgueſe are portable tents, made of felt, like thoſe of the Kalmucks, only larger and more neat; the fire is made in the centre, directly under the opening left in the roof. Round the fire, they ſpread pieces of felt, Perſian carpets, or fur-cuſhions. The wealthy, have the inſide of their tents hung with different coloured ſtuffs, and not un⯑frequently with ſilk. The leather bottles and the ſeveral cheſts and boxes, are ranged round the ſide of the tent, and their arms, ſaddles, bridles, bed-cloaths, &c. hung up over them.’

‘As the Aimaks, or principal families of this nation, love to keep together, their camps contain a great number of huts or tents and conſequently take up a large ſpace of ground. The reſidence of the khan is ſurrounded by near a thouſand tents; but, on the other hand, one may travel fifty or ſixty miles, with⯑out ſeeing a ſingle habitation. They are commonly changing their ſituation, both in ſummer and winter, [304] for the ſake of paſturage; but, the aimaks firſt agree with one another not to ſettle too near together. Their tents are very cold in winter, as their fire con⯑ſiſts of nothing but the dung of cattle, dried.’

The rarer prieſts are among the Kirgueſe, the more numerous are the ſorcerers. They have, as I learnt, five different ſorts, one ſort propheſies from books and from the ſtars, which they do in a ſcientific way, with⯑out any private ſhew of pecuniary motives; theſe are called Fal [...]ſcha. There is, alſo, a ſort of fortune-tel⯑lers among them, called Jauruntſchi, who, from the ſhoulder-blade of a ſheep, foretell future events and anſwer all queſtions. They ſay, this ſhoulder-blade ſhould be cleared from the ſkin and fleſh, not with the teeth, but with the mouth, otherwiſe it is unfit for the black-art. When a queſtion is put to one of theſe for⯑tune-tellers, he directs his mind to ſome thought and lays the blade-bone on the fire, till the flat-ſide gets ſeveral rents and chops with the heat, and foretells from the marks and lines ſo left. They are ſaid to be able to tell at what diſtance an abſent perſon is. They tell you, that a party of Kalmucks, who had once ſuch a fortune-teller among them, committed a conſiderable robbery on the Kirgueſe, and that a party of the latter, who had alſo a fortune-teller among them too, was exhorted by him to purſue the enemy; but the Kal⯑muck fortune-teller was ſo experienced in his art, that he gave ſeaſonable notice to his countrymen of the [305] approach of the Kirgueſe, and urged them to fly. When the Kirguiſian fortune-teller thus found he could not compaſs his deſign, he is ſaid to have made uſe of the following ſtratagem. He ordered his party to ſad⯑dle their horſes, with the front of the ſaddle backwards, and ſet on them in this manner with their backs to the horſes heads; by this means, the Kalmucks were lead into an error, for their fortune-teller adviſed them to go on ſteadily and gently, as there was no danger, the Kirgueſe having their backs turned towards them. Thus were they overtaken by the Kirgueſe and made priſoners. I heard this tale from a Kirgueſe himſelf, but am not accountable for it's credibility.

A third kind of ſorcerers is called Bakſcha, and great confidence is placed in them. When their advice is aſked, they demand a ſelected horſe, ſheep or buck, as a ſacrificial victim. The bakſcha then begins his magic hymns and to beat (as do the Laplanders) a kind of magic drum (kobig) hung with gingling rings, jumping and making many violent motions with his body, for half an hour. He then orders the victim to be brought forth and ſlain, catches the blood in a par⯑ticular veſſel, takes the ſkin for himſelf, and, the fleſh being eaten by thoſe who are preſent, gathers the bones, paints them red and blue, and throws them from him towards the weſt, where he alſo pours the blood of the animal. After this, he jumps about again, for ſome time longer, and then gives the deſired anſwer.

[306]Another kind of magicians, Ramtſcha, are thoſe who pour fat or butter in the fire and propheſy by the co⯑lour of the flame. On ſuch occaſions, they alſo im⯑molate a victim and make uſe of conjurations: but this ſort of witchcraft is in very little repute. There are, likewiſe, wizzards and witches (Dſhaadugar) who enchant the ſlaves and priſoners, ſo that they common⯑ly loſe their way, upon their flight, and fall into the hands of their proprietors again; or, if they ſhould eſcape, fall, ſoon after, into Kirguiſian ſlavery. Theſe pull out ſome of the hair from the captiv's head, aſk his name and ſet him in the middle of a tent over the out-ſpread cinders of the hearth, which are ſtrewed with ſalt. This done, the witch begins her ſpell, du⯑ring which, the priſoner is thrice to go backwards; the witch then ſpits on each of his foot-ſteps and, every time, runs out at the door; at laſt, ſhe ſtrews a little of the aſhes, on which the priſoner ſtands, upon his tongue, and thus ends the enchantment. The Jaiki⯑an Coſſacks firmly believe, that, if a priſoner tells his true name, the witchcraft takes an infallible effect.

The numerous Kirgueſe live far more unconſtrained than the Kalmucks, who acknowledge ſo many little deſpots among them. Every Kirgueſe lives like a free lord, and, on this account, they are leſs dangerous as foes; yet, every aimak, or family, has it's chief, to whom all the relations and dependants pay a voluntary obedi⯑ence. Thoſe who have moſt ſubjects and dependants, [307] take the title of Khans and Sultans. They have, alſo, other degrees of rank. Certain nobles they call Bu, ſome other honourable perſons of ancient extraction, Chodſha, and ſome others, Murſes. The khan, elected and placed over a ſmall Kirguiſian horde, has but little power, unleſs he can acquire it by his wealth and li⯑berality. It is not he that can decide diſputes and contentions among his people, theſe are determined by a certain, annual aſſembly of the elders and chiefs of families. If they divide into parties or are threat⯑ned by ſome war, they call together a democratic council and elect one of the elders or chiefs, for their general. 'The great and wealthy,' ſays Tooke, ‘live perfectly in the ſame manner as the reſt of the people and are remarkable only for the numerous train, that accompanies them in their cavalcades, and the quan⯑tity of huts which ſurround their quarters, inhabited by their wives, their children or their ſlaves. The great men treat the common people as brethren, and as all the Kirgueſe are equally free, theſe latter ſhew no great marks of reſpect to them; ſince every one, immediately on becoming rich, is as great as the beſt of them. In all the tents, the common people place themſelves by the ſide of the nobles, without the leaſt ceremony, eat with them, and ſay what they pleaſe before them. When a ſuperior bids them do any thing, they execute his orders, if they like thoſe orders. Although the commands of the Khan are not executed with the moſt ſcrupulous exactneſs, they [308] treat him with the profoundeſt veneration, looking on his perſon as ſacred. Nour Hali, the reigning khan of one of the hordes, is confirmed in his ſo⯑vereignty by the court of Peterſburg; he is an equi⯑table, diſcreet prince and ſtrictly devoted to Ruſſia. His property conſiſts in about a thouſand horſes, four hundred cows, two hundred camels, four thou⯑ſand ſheep and ſeveral hundred goats, ſo that in re⯑ſpect to riches alone he holds a rank but little diſtin⯑guiſhed, and as he is obliged to form tabounes, or herds of cattle for a number of princes, to enable them to make ſome figure, and his numerous family and ſlaves, and the frequent viſits he receives, occaſi⯑ons a great conſumption of cattle, and as he enjoys no revenue at all, it will be ever impoſible for him to a maſs a large fortune; notwithſtanding this, he makes a much greater figure than any one of his horde, and the preſents he obtains from the court of Ruſſia contribute greatly to the ſupport of his dig⯑nity. His reſidence is compoſed of a vaſt number of huts; thoſe of ſtate are very richly adorned. His family, as well as himſelf, are always dreſſed in cloth of gold or ſilver, or velvets, and his perſon is con⯑ſtantly ſurrounded by the elders of the nation. The title of the khan is Taghſir Ghanim, or Taghſir Pad⯑ſchaïm; his wives are called ſimply Ghanim; the princes, his ſons, bear the title of Taghſir Saltan, and the princeſſes that of Ghanim Kaï, daughters of the khan. The preſent khan has four wives and eight [309] concubines; the former are ſprung from rich and ancient families of the Kirgueſe, but the concubines are either taken from the common people or ſlaves, bought from the Kalmucks, on account of their beauty. Beg Hali, one of his ſons, is khan of the Aïraklian Troughmenians, and Saltan Pri Hali, an⯑other of them, is chief of the other Troughmenians; excepting the two youngeſt, all the princes are mar⯑ried to daughters of the principal Kirgueſe, being already in the rank of elders, in the different uluſſes of both hordes, a uluſs being a ſociety of ſeveral fa⯑milies, who keep carefully together for the ſake of preſerving their deſcent pure and unmixed. Theſe alliances and the dignities of his ſons, contribute much to the power of Nour Hali. As the princeſſes, by the laws of the koran are forbidden to marry any relation, they are all yet ſingle, and ſome of them begin to grow old, yet the khan, through pride, will not diſpoſe of them, at even a handſome price to any ſuitor that is not deſcended of illuſtrious blood. The people are not permitted to ſee the wives and daugh⯑ters of their khan; they never appear in public but when changing their reſidence, and then they go on horſes and camels, in their richeſt dreſs and orna⯑ments. Whenever a Kirgueſe, on horſeback, hap⯑pens to meet the khan in the ſtep or deſart, he diſ⯑mounts, and advancing in an oblique direction to⯑wards him, ſays aloud Alla arbaſchou! i. e. God give thee proſperity! After this ſalutation, the khan [310] ſtrikes him gently on the ſhoulder with his hand or whip, and this paſſes for a ſort of benediction.’

‘Though they are forbidden to ſteal, or carry off men or cattle, they are ſo far from thinking theſe depredations ſhameful in any way, that they glory in them, boaſting to one another of the exploit and the extraordinary adventures accompanying it, as if it were ſome couragious act of heroiſm, or ſome ho⯑nourable and glorious feat of chivalry. The cir⯑cumjacent nations are moſt frequently expoſed to their incurſions, but the Kalmucks are their moſt favourite objects, though the riſk is the greateſt: as for the Ruſſians, they are ſeldom moleſted.’

They commit their petty robberies in ſmall gangs, and if, upon the Ruſſian frontiers, they drive away a ſtock of horſes and ſeize ſome ſingle men and women, it is commonly about the time when they quit that diſtrict with their flocks; for as long as they feed their cattle in their vicinity, they take care that no diſorders are committed, leaſt the innocent and guiltleſs, who can⯑not get off as expeditiouſly with their flocks, ſhould ſuffer for the miſdemeanours of the perpetrators. They commonly ſuit their periods of robbing ſo well, as ne⯑ver to be caught. It has been remarked, that their neighbourhood is moſt dangerous in thoſe places where the ſtep, on the Ruſſian frontiers, is flat and open; not in their mountainous and woody ſteps, where they [311] conceal themſelves and lie in wait for opportunities. The Aſiatic caravans who paſs through the inſecure ſteps, inhabited by theſe plunderers, to the Ruſſian trading towns, gain over the aimaks of the diſtrict they paſs through, to their favour, by preſents of goods; in which caſe they appoint them an eſcort, for which they are paid from ten to twelve rubles, or about forty-eight ſhillings Engliſh, per camel.

'Beſides the captures,' ſays Tooke, ‘which acci⯑dent throws in their way, they go out ſometimes ſingly in ſearch of adventures, and at other times in ſmall parties, having at their head, but too often, ſome great lord of their nation. When they have a mind to pillage any caravan, in their own territories or beyond them, ſeveral uluſſes join together for that purpoſe, entering into negotiations and making con⯑ventions in form, that they may be more certain of the predatory project. In this ſort of ſkirmiſh, it often happens, that a great number of the Kirgueſe are made priſoners and carried away captive by the caravans, and if any are killed in the fight, not the ſmalleſt enquiry is ever made of what is become of them. In trifling ſeizures, every one keeps what he gets, but conſiderable and important ſpoils are di⯑vided, according to previous contract, or as the exi⯑gencies of the caſe may require. Each adventurer keeps the cattle that fall to his ſhare and, generally, the women he has taken, as the buying off a woman [312] does great honour to the raviſher. They yield up the ſlaves and merchandize to the more wealthy, who give them cattle in exchange. It is no uncom⯑mon thing to ſell their ſlaves to a neighbouring nati⯑on, eſpecially if theſe ſlaves are Ruſſians, for as they are known to be laborious and accuſtomed to agri⯑culture, they fetch a great price, and it is the inte⯑reſt of the Kirgueſe to get rid of them as ſoon as poſſible, knowing what they are to expect, if any Ruſſians are found among their captives’.

‘The court of Ruſſia has taken various meaſures to put a check to theſe terrible diſorders. A line of in⯑trenchments and redoubts has been built along their frontiers. Wherever the river does not prevent their excurſions, they fix a number of ſticks, with both ends in the earth, bent in the ſame manner as thoſe in ſome countries for catching thruſhes; theſe ſticks, or wands, are placed from one redoubt to another, ſo that the patrole can ſee, at once, by ſuch as are wanting or deranged, whether any Kir⯑gueſe, (who come always on horſeback), have paſſed the frontiers, and, on ſuch diſcovery, mount and purſue them immediately. The Ruſſian ſhepherds are armed and always on horſeback, to be on their guard and defend themſelves, when neceſſary. If, notwithſtanding all theſe precautions, a robbery is committed, or a caravan bound to Ruſſia is pil⯑laged on the deſart of the Kirgueſe, the Ruſſian [313] commandants demand reſtitution from the khan; and if neither he nor the lords of the nation, can bring the people to conſent to it, a troop of Baſchirians is diſpatched immediately into the horde, and the firſt Kirguiſian uluſs they come to, is obliged to conduct them to that which committed the robbery, or be anſwerable for the damage. The Baſchirians then take with them a certain number of Kirgueſe and cattle, and bring them to Orenberg, where they are detained, till a ſtate of the loſs can be aſcertained. This being done, the overplus is ſent back again, as ſoon as the Ruſſian priſoners, taken in the engage⯑ment, are reſtored. When any ſingle robbers are caught, or a ſmall party together, they are firſt puniſhed and then ſhut up in Oſtrogs of the fortreſſes, where priſoners condemned to public works are con⯑fined.’

Was it not for their depredations, the Kirgueſe, would not be ſo formidable. So little ſanguinary are they, that they would rather make a ſlave of a man than put him to death. Whilſt their ſlaves are faithful, they never treat them cruelly. ‘As they are all paſſi⯑onately fond,' continues Tooke, 'of uncontrouled liberty, and as every man can acquire a ſtock ſuffici⯑ent for his own ſupport, not one of them can bear the idea of being a ſervant to any of his countrymen; they are all brethren and have the reſolution to pre⯑ſerve their condition as ſuch, which is the reaſon that [314] the rich are obliged to have yaſowres, or ſlaves, from other nations. The more of theſe a Kirguiſian lord poſſeſſes, the greater figure he makes, and the more care is taken of his flocks. Even the courtiers and domeſtics of the great are all ſlaves; the khan keeps about fifty. Slavery, among this people, is no great hardſhip, to ſuch as are once accuſtomed to their way of life; for the maſters treat their ſlaves as if they were their relations, ſupplying them with all the neceſſaries of life, and giving them the ſame provi⯑ſions they eat themſelves. A priſoner, on the con⯑trary, who cannot bring himſelf to adopt their me⯑thod of living, fares but ill among them. Attempts made to eſcape, never fail to draw on the delinquents ſuch cruel treatment, as often coſts them their lives; involving in their calamity ſuch unfortunate women, as, calculated by ſentiments of humanity, have con⯑tributed to favour their deſertion.’

‘As all of them are not in a condition to afford ſo many ſlaves as are neceſſary to look after their flocks, the rich give their ſuperfluous ſheep and cattle to the poor; who, in return, tend the herds and flocks of their benefactors. If the cattle of a Kirgueſe multi⯑ply rapidly, he conſiders it as a ſecret ſuggeſtion to beneficence, and diſtributes them largely to his more indigent neighbours. So long as his benefactor re⯑mains in good circumſtances, the other is never ex⯑pected to make any return; but if his cattle ſhould [315] be ſtolen, or diminiſhed by contagious diſtempers, the perſon whom his bounty ſet up, in the time of his proſperity, reſtores him what he received, and often adds to them ſome of the young produced by the animals whilſt he was the depoſitory of his neigh⯑bour's beneficence; even though, by ſo doing, he ſhould reduce himſelf to the ſtate of indigence he was in before. This courteous and honourable manner of diſpoſing of their property, puts numbers of them above the fear of want; rendering, at the ſame time, their flocks and herds, as it were, immortal; for the more they give away in the time of affluence, the more abundantly they receive on a change of for⯑tune.’

‘For the homage of the Kirgueſe to the crown of Ruſſia, that court protects them againſt all invaders, and, in commerce and ſocial life, affords them the ſame advantages as to the Ruſſians, gives them the quiet poſſeſſion of their country, diſturbing neither their conſtitution, their laws, their religion nor the trade they carry on with their neighbours. They pay no kind of tax or tribute; in ſhort, they are under no reſtriction or conſtraint whatever; but they are bound to be friendly to all Ruſſians and all nations in alli⯑ance with the crown, and conſider the enemies of Ruſſia as their own. To guarantee their obligations, they ſend certain principal people (Amanati) to Orenburg, as hoſtages, who receive an allowance, [316] ſtipulated by themſelves, of fifteen kopeeks, or ſeven-pence half-penny, Engliſh, per day, for every hoſtage, and five kopeeks for each domeſtic, living very well for this ſmall ſum. If the Khan goes to Orenburg, he muſt firſt aſk permiſſion of the govern⯑or, and is then received like a ſovereign prince, a body-guard is appointed him, and the phyſicians of Orenburg, are obliged to furniſh remedies, gratis, to ſuch of their ſick as apply for them; but, notwith⯑ſtanding all this, and in defiance of their homage and their treaties, they cannot but give way to their cha⯑racteriſtic paſſion for plunder and rapine; if any thing reſtrains them, it is either the armed force, which Ruſſia, at times, is obliged to employ againſt them, the perſonal intereſt and advantage they draw from commerce, or the influence of their chiefs, who have a juſter ſenſe of decency and decorum.’

‘We find no ſchool among them, ſo that a few only know how to write their language, which is ſaid to be a dialect of the Tartarian, pretty pure. The Kirgueſe have a frank and prepoſſeſſing air.’ In their conduct towards ſtrangers, ſays Pallas, they are affable, yet always intereſted and crafty; even when they viſit any Ruſſian trading town, they will make trifling preſents to people, in order to aſk them for more important ones. ‘They have a ſharp but not a fierce look and ſmaller eyes than the Tartars; they do not want good, natural ſenſe, are greedy of dan⯑ger [317] and high-ſpirited; but, at the ſame time, fond of their eaſe and voluptuous. Their women have the reputation of being good economiſts, tender and compaſſionate towards their ſlaves, whoſe eſcape they ſtrive to favour, even by expoſing themſelves to va⯑rious inconveniencies and the rude treatment of their huſbands.’

‘Armed as the Kirgueſe always are, they are but inexpert warriors; they are, however, good bow⯑men, their muſkets have no locks, but are fired with a match; they cannot diſcharge them on horſe-back, but diſmount, lie on the ground and reſt the barrel of the gun on a fork faſtened to it. It is eaſy to ima⯑gine that they, ſometimes, meet with an enemy that has not patience enough to wait for all theſe maneu⯑vres. The inſtant they perceive that nothing is to be done, or that they are beaten; in ſpite of comman⯑ders or military law, every man takes the ſhorteſt way home; but, when they have to engage with an enemy as little practiſed as themſelves in the art of war, they are almoſt always victorious.’

‘Their laws are few, but founded on the koran and the uſages of their anceſtors. Starchans or elders are ſet over the uluſſes, and the Khan's deciſion is the laſt appeal. A murderer, for two years after the commiſſion of the crime, is at the mercy of the rela⯑tions of the perſon ſlain; who, if they can lay hold [318] of him in that time, may put him to death; if he eſcapes and is inclined to return home, he may pur⯑chaſe that permiſſion, by paying 100 horſes, a ſlave and two camels, to the family of the deceaſed. In lieu of horſes, he may give ſheep, five ſheep being equivalent to one horſe. He that kills a woman, an infant, or a ſlave, pays half the foregoing fine, as, alſo, any one that makes a woman miſcarry; but in all theſe caſes the relations and friends of the culprit endeavour to make as good a bargain as they can with the injured party, who generally remit a part of the penalty. Maiming a man is reckoned as half-murder. For a thumb cut off, the criminal pays a hundred ſheep, the little finger is valued at twenty. The loſs of the ears is ſuch an abomination, that a man without them, though he ſhould have loſt them in the moſt innocent manner, is not even tolerated among them. Whoever commits a robbery on his countrymen, reſtores nine times the value. None are allowed to take an oath in their own cauſe, and if the accuſed can get no brother or friend to ſwear for him, he is proceeded againſt as guilty.’

[320]The property or wealth of the Kirgueſe conſiſts in breeding of cattle, of which horſes and ſheep are the moſt numerous; they have a much ſmaller number of camels and very badly are they ſtocked with great cat⯑tle, as they cannot live on the ſteps in winter-time, without being fed. They make uſe of cows to tranſ⯑port their tents, &c. from one place to another. They have no other camels but thoſe of two bunches. As much as I could learn of the breeding of theſe animals I did; they bring the male to the female in winter-time, when ſhe is moſt diſpoſed to receive him. The male being brought, ſhe falls down on her knees, and the male dropping upon his hind-legs and raiſing his fore-legs quite upright, is above an hour engaged. Like other animals, when with young, the female camel ſhuns the male, and, if purſued, ſets up a roar. They carry their young a whole year, and fuckle them for two years; on this account the propagation of ca⯑mels is exceedingly ſlow. Wealthy Kirgueſe keep camels for milk, which is rich, bluiſh, thick and very pleaſant in taſte. It is conſidered as ſalubrious, never yields any cream and, if ſour, is ſaid to ferment better and make a better ſpirit, than mare's milk. In winter, camels require more attendance and care than any other cattle. They cloath them with felt and ruſh⯑mats, and, if the cold is ſevere, ſtretch felts and mats between the tents, to ſhelter them from the weather.

[321]Kirguiſian horſes are but little different from thoſe of the Kalmucks, except that they are higher. In wild⯑neſs and ſwiftneſs, they are equal to the former and are accuſtomed to ſcrape out their food, in winter, from underneath the ſnow. They divide their horſes into certain ſtocks; each ſtock has one ſtallion; and, ſuch male-colts as are not kept for this purpoſe, are made geldings. This ſtallion is as a ſhepherd to the ſtock or brood of mares, and keeps them together.

Their ſheep are, without exception, the largeſt and moſt monſtrous of all wool-cattle, they are higher than a new-born calf and ſo ſtrong and heavy, that ſuch as are full-grown, in a proper ſeaſon, will weigh between four and five puds, that is, about 180 lb. Engliſh. In their form, they reſemble Indian ſheep, have crooked ram-heads, pouching under-lips, large, hang⯑ing ears, and often ſingle or double warts about their necks. Inſtead of a tall, they have, on the rump, a great lump of ſat, which will weigh from thirty to for⯑ty pounds, and yield from twenty to thirty pounds of tallow. Their wool is coarſe, long and mixed with hair behind. Their colour chiefly brown, or ſpotted with brown, and ſome are white. The rams are all horned, ſo are the wether; ſome have from four to ſix horns, like thoſe of Iceland. The rams are left with the ſtock during the whole ſummer, but, from the month of April to October, they bind a felt round their body, to prevent their coupling. During winter, [322] they ſeek their food underneath the ſnow, and eat the ſnow inſtead of drinking. The ewes generally bring forth two lambs at a time, and as there is no diſeaſe among them, they are left to the care of nature. ‘The fleſh is ſweeter,' ſays Tooke, 'than that of the com⯑mon, European ſheep, and men of diſtinguiſhing pa⯑lates, perceive in it an aromatic flavour of different, odoriferous kinds of wormwood. The lambs are eſteemed ſo delicate, that a certain number are ſent yearly from Orenburg to Peterſburg, for the court-kitchen. This ſheep is the ovis laticauda of Lin⯑neus.’

‘Lambſkins, in this country, are in the higheſt eſti⯑mation and make an important article in Kirguiſian commerce; they are of various colours, white, black, blue, grey, ſpotted and fox-colour; the beſt are waved, ſlaine, as if varniſhed, and reſemble a piece of flowered damaſk. To increaſe the quantity of theſe ſkins and, at the ſame time, to render them larger, the Kirgueſs few linen about the new-fallen lambs, which preſerves the wool ſleek and renders it waving. When the lamb is grown ſo large as to burſt the linen, they kill it for the ſkin.’

They have, alſo, many goats among their ſheep, whom they rear only for their milk. Theſe animals, alſo, have an odd appearance, being moſtly without horns, with long hair hanging neatly about the limbs: [323] their ears hang down and their coats are ſpotted with various colours.

Beſides a ſhepherd-life, the Kirgueſe employ them⯑ſelves much in hunting and have, thus, an opportuni⯑ty of extirpating both foxes and wolves, that are ſuch enemies to their flocks. I have already mentioned, I think, that they train up eagles for this purpoſe. On the extenſive ſteps, they hunt on horſeback. In order to catch antelopes, who, in winter, chiefly frequent reedy diſtricts, they ſhorten the reeds in particular places, which, as the animal leeps through, wounds him in the belly and renders him eaſily to be caught.

This nation generally reaches an old age and are, till the laſt year of life, ſprightly and without infirmi⯑ties. Their moſt common complaints, are colds, fe⯑vers, ſhortneſs of breath and the venereal diſeaſe, which they call kowrouſaſlan. I could not learn that they were ever afflicted, with thoſe burning fevers ſo dangerous among the Kalmucks, but the tſchitſchak, or ſmall-pox, has ſhewn itſelf among them at times, yet without committing any great ravages. They are, however, ſo afraid of this diſorder, that as ſoon as the eruption ſhews itſelf, they forſake the patient, putting down his food at a diſtance and leaving him to fetch it; and was a perſon, in this diſorder, to go near any of their tents, they would think themſelves juſtifiable in ſhooting him.

[324]They bury their dead as do the Mahomedans. The grave is but ſhallow, in which they lay the corpſe full-dreſſed, cover it with branches and then with earth. At the head, which is always to the north, they put in a ſtick which is kept perpendicular till the tumulus is raiſed, beaten ſolid and completed; this ſtick is then drawn out and an opening thus left into the grave. In ſtoney diſtricts, they lay a pile of ſtones over it. Where is the wonder then that we ſhould meet with ſo many tumuli in all the ſteps, which muſt continually increaſe, eſpecially as they like to bury their friends in ſuch places where ſome holy men are ſaid to have been buried before, near ſome metſched, or houſe of prayer, and generally where there are many old graves.

'When a man dies,' ſays Tooke, ‘they cut his beſt garment to pieces and diſtribute the fragments among his friends, who lay them up as memorials of him.’

‘Circumciſion, they never omit. The Abdals, or circumciſers go up and down through the hordes, to perform this operation on the children of the faithful, and as every one, receiving this profeſſional charac⯑ter, i [...] obliged to give the abdal a ſheep for his trou⯑ble, theſe people have always conſiderable ſtocks.’