THE METHOD OF PREVENTING AND REMOVING THE CAUSES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES, WRITTEN IN PLAIN SIMPLE LANGUAGE, BY GEORGE BORTHWICK, SURGEON TO THE FOURTEENTH REGIMENT OF LIGHT DRAGOONS, AND HONORARY MEM⯑BER OF THE PHYSICO-CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY AT EDINBURGH.
CORK: PRINTED BY J. CRONIN, No. 52, GRAND-PARADE.
M.DCC.LXXX.IV.
PREFACE.
[]THE intention of the following pages, is to point out the moſt mate⯑rial cauſes, that occur in a large Town, to give riſe to infectious diſ⯑eaſes; to ſhew the ſteps neceſſary to be taken to prevent ſuch ſources of contagion; and to adviſe ſome pre⯑cautions to be uſed, that are moſt likely to prevent infection, during the prevalence of theſe diſorders.
A performance of this nature car⯑ried to its full extent, might be made to fill a volume; but I have induſ⯑triouſly ſtudied to make every direc⯑tion as ſhort, and conciſe as poſſible; for had I entered more largely into the ſubject, I muſt have written a [v]book that would only have been read by a few, whereas this ſmall pam⯑phlet can readily be obtained by moſt people. I have given my opinion in the form of paragraphs, as I imagine that this mode of giving directions is the eaſieſt to be underſtood, ſince by this means the mind is not fa⯑tigued with a chain of reaſoning. I have avoided all reaſoning on the pro⯑priety of any direction that I have given, as I truſt that it will appear ſelf-evident; and had I entered into a vindication and diſcuſſion of the utility of what is recommended in each paragraph, I ſhould not only have made theſe pages too numerous to be generally read, but ſhould have been obliged to have recourſe to ſci⯑entific reaſoning, that could only have been intelligible to thoſe of my own profeſſion. I have therefore careful⯑ly [vi]ſhunned every profeſſional Term; a circumſtance that ſhould always be attended to, by thoſe that write for the benefit of mankind.
I do not pretend to ſay, that the following pages contain every direc⯑tion, that may on ſome occaſions be neceſſary, to prevent or remove the cauſes of infectious diſorders; I will only venture to ſay, that on all occa⯑ſions, what I have given will be eſ⯑ſentially requiſite; and are proper to conſtitute the grand outlines, of any regulations that may be deemed ne⯑ceſſary, to prevent and remove con⯑tagious diſeaſes from a City. I have likewiſe added, by way of poſtſcript to my plan, ſome directions that from experience have been ſound ſervicea⯑ble, to ſuch as viſit unhealthy cli⯑mates; which I thought would not [vii]be unacceptable to the inhabitants of a large commercial City.
Small as this performance is, I doubt not but that it may meet with critical cenſure from ſome; but as men of diſcernment, will I hope al⯑ways judge for themſelves, and allow their opinions to be ſwayed only by the cool deciſion of an unprejudiced mind, I ſhall always deſpiſe whatever impotent cenſure may proceed from motives of ungenerous ſelf-intereſt.
THE METHOD OF PREVENTING AND REMOVING THE CAUSES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
[]I. THE health of the Inhabitants of eve⯑ry large Town, depends very much on the police of the place, and on the due per⯑formance of every duty connected there⯑with.
II. As the eſtabliſhment, as well as the execution of every regulation, made either for the convenience or health of a City, [9]are more immediately connected with the functions of magiſtracy, the Magiſtrates are in ſome meaſure anſwerable to the In⯑habitants, in ſo far at leaſt, as to enforce a proper obedience to, and of courſe a per⯑fect performance of every law, that for theſe purpoſes may have been adopted.
III. The firſt material conſideration for preſerving the health of the Inhabitants in a large Town, is a rigid attention, to every ſtep that can tend to produce cleanlineſs; and in the laying out of every additional building, to ſecure a free communication of pure air, and a facility of preſerving clean⯑lineſs, ought always to be kept in view by thoſe that have the management of the police.
IV. Nor ſhould a houſe be built in a place likely to prove unhealthy, ſince not only its own inhabitants would ſuffer, but it would readily become a ſource of infec⯑tion to the moſt extenſive City.
V. In building a Town, the ſtreets ought to be ſo wide as to inſure a free circulation of air, and the wider the ſtreets are in any [10]Town, the more healthy will the inhabit⯑ants be found; whereas narrow ſtreets, by admitting a leſs proportion of pure air, have every chance of creating infectious diſeaſes.
VI. When it can be done, houſes ought to be built on the north ſide of any marſh, ſwampy ground, or large rivers, that are apt often to ebb and flow, rather than on the ſouth ſide of ſuch places: Becauſe from theſe, the ſun powerfully exhales ſuch vapours, as by being breathed or otherwiſe applied to the body, are capable of producing many contagious diſeaſes. Whereas the inhabitants on the north ſide of ſuch places, are in no riſque of being expoſed to theſe aſcending vapours. Houſes built on the north-weſt of a large Town, will always prove the moſt healthy.
VII. All ſlaughter-houſes, and butcheries, ought to be in the ſouth of every Town; and the Magiſtrates ought to enforce the greateſt cleanlineſs in theſe places, that the nature of ſuch buſineſs can admit of; and the filth produced in ſuch places ought not to paſs through any channel, that goes [11]through the City. The moſt certain way of preventing diſeaſes from ariſing in con⯑ſequence of the filth of ſuch places, is by obliging the butchers, &c. to bury all offal, blood, &c. before they have time to become offenſive, or to remove them to ſome diſ⯑tant place from the City.
VIII. That of ſlaughtering animals in the ſtreets, and permitting the blood, &c, to remain there, ought to be made highly criminal, and puniſhed accordingly.
IX. All dead horſes, dogs, cats, &c. ought to be buried, or carried to ſome diſ⯑tant place; nothing gives a ſtranger a mean⯑er idea of the taſte of the inhabitants of a Town, or produces more certain ſources of contagious diſeaſes, than to ſee ſuch dead animals laying about the ſtreets*.
[12]X. Tan-yards, and ſuch factories as pro⯑duce offenſive ſmells, ought never to be permitted in the middle of any large Town. They ought only to be in ſuch parts as have leaſt communication with the inha⯑bitants at large.
XI. All filth ſhould be removed from every ſtreet and lane, early every morning, and carried to a common reſervoir at a con⯑ſiderable diſtance from the Town; and peo⯑ple ſhould be appointed, ſo many to each diſtrict, whoſe buſineſs it ought to be dur⯑ing the day, to carry entirely out of the Town, whatever filth or dirt may be pro⯑duced on the ſtreets. That of collecting dunghills on the ſtreets, and allowing them to remain there, during the pleaſure of a Scavenger, is very hurtful to the health of the inhabitants,
XII. Common ſewers, or ſhores, ought to extend through every ſtreet, and ſhould empty themſelves entirely out of, or at ſome diſtance from the Town; and great care ſhould be taken to keep them perfect⯑ly free, and fit for their duty; it likewiſe ought to be a puniſhable crime, to throw [13]any thing into a ſhore that might tend to choke it up.
XIII. The eſtabliſhing of publick Privies, or Neceſſary-houſes, in convenient parts of a Town, is eſſential to its cleanlineſs; as the want of ſuch places of convenience, is a material cauſe of the filth ſo frequently found in lanes, &c.
XIV. Such publick Neceſſary-houſes, ought to be carefully attended to, by the police officers, and ſo conſtructed as to be eaſily cleaned, which ought to be done ve⯑ry early every morning*.
[14]XV. A plentiful ſupply of good water is inſeparably connected with the health of a Town; the houſes of opulent individu⯑als being provided with good water by [15]means of pipes, is of ſmall benefit to thoſe of inferior circumſtances, that in all nati⯑ons conſtitute the great body of the people.
XVI. The eaſy attainment of an ample ſupply of this neceſſary article in life to the people at large, merits the greateſt at⯑tention of the police. In many Towns where good water can only be obtained at a diſtance, publick pipes that conduct the water from the grand reſervoir are eſtab⯑liſhed in convenient quarters of the Town, by which means the poor are enabled to partake of this common bounty of provi⯑dence, in as great perfection as the rich.
XVII. Jails, Poor-houſes, and Hoſpitals, ought always to be in the moſt remote quarters of a Town; but at the ſame time [16]in ſuch places as are little likely by ſitua⯑tion to become unhealthy, leaſt they ſhould turn out nurſeries for propagating diſeaſes.
XVIII. An officer of the police ought daily to viſit every part of the jail, poor⯑houſe, and other publick charity, to enforce a due obedience, to ſuch orders as the po⯑lice may think proper to make, for the re⯑gulation of ſuch places; and the viſiting officer ſhould be authoriſed, to inflict ſuch puniſhment as may ſeem neceſſary (and as may have been fixed by the police) for any neglect of duty, or diſobedience of orders, that the reſpective officers of ſuch places may be found guilty of.
XIX. In all jails, poor-houſes, &c. the utmoſt attention ſhould be paid, to the ſhirts and ſhifts of the priſoners in jail, and the inhabitants of a poor houſe. Their linen ought to be changed at leaſt twice a week, and the officer of police ſhould not only enforce this order, but ſhould take care that the linen has been properly waſh⯑ed, and well aired before it is given to wear.
[17]XX. All jails, poor-houſes, &c. ought to be provided with a ſufficient quantity of linen, to ſupply ſuch as may be ſent there without a ſufficiency of this neceſſary arti⯑cle; and thoſe who have the care of ſuch places, ought to be anſwerable, that ſuch linen is kept in good order, and always forth coming. And every jail ſhould be ſupplied with a quantity of good blanket⯑ting.
XXI. Every room in jail, poor-houſe, &c. ought to be ſwept carefully every morning, the ſides and ceiling as well as the floor ought to undergo this operation; and the ſtraw and other bedding, when the weather is dry, ought to be carried out, and laid in a yard (that ought always to belong to a jail) for the benefit of the air, five or ſix hours every day.
XXII. As ſoon as the ſtraw, bedding, &c. has been carried out of the different rooms, the floors ought to be ſtrewed over with ſand or ſaw-duſt, which next morning is to be ſwept out, and the ſame proceſs to be repeated every day.
[18]XXIII. When wet weather renders the carrying into the air of the ſtraw and other bedding inadmiſſible, they ſhould be re⯑moved into a corner of the room, to per⯑mit it to undergo the directions ordered as above.
XXIV. The ſtraw for a jail, poor-houſe, &c. ought to be changed at leaſt once eve⯑ry month, and care ſhould be taken that the old ſtraw is either burnt, or carried to ſome diſtance from the Town.
XXV. If feather-beds, or hair-mattreſ⯑ſes, are ever uſed in a jail, poor-houſe, &c. beſides being regularly expoſed to the free air, on every dry day, they ought to be ſu⯑migated once a week, by being held at a proper diſtance over the ſmoke of burning brimſtone, or gun-powder.
XXVI. All ſheeting ſhould be changed once a fortnight, and the ſheets and blan⯑kets when the weather will permit, ought to be put on ropes fixed in the yard for the purpoſe of expoſing them to the action of the air.
[19]XXVII. Every boarded floor ſhould be waſhed with ſoap and water once every week, and it ought to be done in the morn⯑ing of a dry day, that the inhabitants of the room may be enabled to remain in the yard, till the floor is perfectly dry and co⯑vered over with ſand. The ſides of the room and ceiling ſhould undergo the ſame operation.
XXVIII. All dungeons of a jail ſhould have boarded bottoms, and their ſides plaiſ⯑tered to make cleanlineſs the more practica⯑ble; but when theſe places happen to have clay floors, and rough walls for their ſides, the floors and walls ought daily to be ſwept with a hard broom, and the walls once a week, ought to be waſhed by throwing ſoap and water upon them with a mop, after which they may be dried by careful⯑ly ſweeping with a broom, and by burning ſome fuel in a chaffing diſh; a practice that ought frequently to be uſed in all ſubtera⯑neous apartments, and which ought like⯑wiſe to be had recourſe to in all rooms in jails, poor-houſes, &c.
XXIX. Every room ſhould have its win⯑dows ſo ſituated, as to admit of a free cur⯑rent [20]of freſh air at pleaſure; and all win⯑dow ſaſhes, when there is no rain, ſhould be opened ſome hours every day.
XXX. Every jail, and poor-houſe or other charity, ought to have a commodious yard annexed to it, and a privy ſhould be ſituated in ſome part of it, that will prove leaſt offenſive. Into theſe privies all cham⯑ber-pots, &c. ſhould be emptied, and the regular cleaning of ſuch privies, ſhould be carefully attended to.
XXXI. Every priſoner in jail, ought to be (unleſs prevented by ſickneſs) made to remain in the yard for ſome hours every day in fair weather, and as a military guard attends on every jail, a proper number of centinels being poſted in the yard, would render the walking about of thoſe con⯑demned to die, perfectly admiſſible. Eve⯑ry priſoner ought to twig and bruſh his cloaths in the yard, every day in dry wea⯑ther.
XXXII. A ſeparate building with con⯑venient rooms ought to belong to every jail, and publick building, for the purpoſe of an [21]hoſpital for the ſick, and when this cannot be had, a ſufficient number of rooms be⯑longing to the building itſelf, ſhould be ap⯑propriated to that purpoſe.
XXXIII. As the regulation of the apart⯑ments for the ſick will neceſſarily belong to the Faculty that attend them, I reckon any directions on that head unneceſſary.
XXXIV. Whenever any perſon belong⯑ing to a jail, or other publick building is taken ſick, he ought immediately to be re⯑ported to the Surgeon, or Phyſician, and the perſon taken ill, ſhould be removed to the hoſpital.
XXXV. Men of the firſt abilities only, in phyſic and ſurgery, ſhould be entruſted with the care of the ſick, the conſequence of delegating this important office, to the charge of an apothecary is highly danger⯑ous to the inhabitants at large. Since in all ſuch places, infectious diſeaſes are more likely to break out than any where elſe, it follows, that the practitioners ſhould be ſuch, as by their abilities are beſt able, ſpeedily to put a ſtop to them.
[22]XXXVI. In every large Town there ought to be commodious hoſpitals for the reception of medical, as well as ſurgical pa⯑tients, and in ſuch hoſpitals there ſhould be a ſuite of rooms for the accommodation of ſuch ſervants of the inhabitants of the Town, as may be taken ill of infectious diſeaſes*.
XXXVII. There ſhould likewiſe be a publick Diſpenſary, where ſuch of the diſ⯑eaſed poor whoſe caſes do not require con⯑finement, may receive medicine and advice, and the medical attendants of the Diſpen⯑ſary ſhould viſit ſuch as are confined at home, whenever the hoſpitals happen to be full.
XXXVIII. Whenever any infectious diſ⯑eaſe appears in a Town, it ought immedi⯑ately to be reported to the chief magiſtrate, who ought to ſummon a meeting of the police, to conſult with ſome of the moſt eminent of the Faculty, on ſuch ſteps as by being carried into execution, may be moſt likely to put a ſtop to its progreſs.
[23]XXXIX. Every perſon that dies of any infectious diſeaſe, ought to be buried in twenty-four hours after death; and when infectious diſeaſes prevail and great morta⯑lity, the ringing of bells at deaths and fu⯑nerals ſhould be ſtrictly prohibited. And the idle, diſſipated cuſtom of a number of people aſſembling at wakes, ought on all ſuch occaſions to be forbidden, as ſuch a practice is extremely dangerous.
XL. Thoſe who attend funeral cere⯑monies, ſhould not perform theſe duties with an empty ſtomach, for in this ſituati⯑on they will be more apt to catch infection, both from the corpſe, and the hurtful va⯑pours that ariſe from a newly opened grave, than after a meal.
XLI. When infectious diſeaſes are pre⯑valent in a Town, it will be of great ſer⯑vice to burn gun-powder in the ſtreets, and to make fires in different parts of the Town, of any wood that abounds with re⯑ſin, ſuch as the different ſpecies of fir.
XLII. In every houſe where there is any infectious fever, vinegar ought ſeveral [24]times in the day to be boiled, and ſprinkled while hot in every room; and a ſauce-pan filled with hot vinegar, ſhould always be kept in the patients chamber. The burn⯑ing of frankincenſe* is very pleaſant to the ſmell, and very powerful in purifying pu⯑trid air.
XLIII. When infectious diſeaſes pre⯑vail, every attention to cleanlineſs of per⯑ſon ſhould be doubled, particularly in re⯑gard to linen; for during ſuch times the perſpiration ſooner becomes hurtful, and more powerful in producing a contageous matter capable of bringing on a fever, than when ſuch diſeaſes are not general.
[25]XLIV. All attendants on the ſick in ſuch fevers, ſhould be careful in holding the head as little over the patient as poſſible, or in ſpeaking very near to the patient: this caution is to prevent the hurtful eſſluvia (that are more powerful in proportion as they are near to the patient) from entering the lungs.
XLV. When the Faculty, Clergy, or others that may for any time be obliged to ſtay by the patients bed-ſide, are there, a veſſel containing warm vinegar ought to be placed near them; and it is better to ſmell to any grateful ſubſtance, than to chew any thing as a preventative, becauſe in doing the latter there is danger of the infectious matter being entangled with the ſpittle, and thereby of producing what it was intended to prevent.
XLVI. Whenever a perſon dies of any contagious diſeaſe, the corpſe ought quick⯑ly after death to be put into a cloſe coffin, and the room in which the perſon died ſhould be well aired, by having the win⯑dows opened, until a charcoal fire be kin⯑dled with ſome rolls of ſulphur upon it; [26]after which both doors and windows ought to be kept ſhut, for a conſiderable time, not leſs than eight or ten hours, until the room be thoroughly ſmoked; after which the windows ought to be again opened for ſe⯑veral hours, and the room ſhould not only be well ſcoured with ſoap and water, but likewiſe with warm vinegar, before any one inhabits it. The ſame ſteps ought to be taken with every room in which an in⯑fectious diſeaſe has been, though the pati⯑ent may have recovered: and for this pur⯑poſe it is proper that whenever a perſon is ſo far recovered from any contagious diſ⯑eaſe, as to admit of being moved with ſafe⯑ty, the patient ſhould be conveyed to ano⯑ther chamber, to permit the one occupied during the diſeaſe to undergo the neceſſary purification.
XLVII. It may perhaps be proper to ob⯑ſerve, that the blankets, linen, &c. of ſuch as die of infectious diſeaſes, ought to be ſteeped for ſome time in cold water, before they undergo the uſual proceſs of being waſhed: for if without this precaution they were to be waſhed in hot water in the uſual manner, the hurtful ſteams that [27]would thereby be produced, might prove very dangerous to the perſon employed in waſhing them.
XLVIII. Thoſe whoſe duty it may be to go amongſt the ſick, ought never to per⯑form that duty faſting; even a ſmall quan⯑tity of aliment taken into the ſtomach, gives great vigour to the whole body; and the body is more or leſs likely to be affect⯑ed with contagion, in proportion to the ſtate of ſtrength or weakneſs of the ſtomach: It is therefore proper for thoſe that are oblig⯑ed to have much intercourſe with the ſick in contagious diſeaſes, to take a doſe of ſome comfortable ſtomachic medicine every morn⯑ing an hour before breakfaſt; and I have from much experience found, that an ounce of Huxham's Tincture of Bark, is as uſeful a preventative as can be taken*.
[28]XLIX. Whatever effects the ſtrength of the ſtomach, has a powerful effect in pro⯑ducing or preventing contagious diſeaſes; therefore every ſtep ought to be taken, to keep that organ in the utmoſt vigour dur⯑ing the prevalence of infectious diſeaſes: and for this purpoſe, the utmoſt circum⯑ſpection in the way of living ought to be attended to, and all ſuch food as has been generally found to diſagree with the ſto⯑mach, ought on ſuch occaſions to be care⯑fully avoided.
L. A due quantity of generous wine, ſhould be uſed by every one whoſe circum⯑ſtances will admit of it; at the ſame time, I think it neceſſary to ſay that exceſs in drinking, by leaving the ſtomach, and of courſe the whole body in a weakened ſtate, would prove hurtful. Exceſs in eating on all ſuch occaſions ſhould be carefully avoid⯑ed, as being capable of throwing the ſto⯑mach into that ſtate, that may readily in⯑vite any infectious diſorder; nay ſome of the ancient phyſicians reckoned any exceſs in eating, more dangerous than that of drinking, for Celſus ſays, ‘"Si qua, intem⯑perantia ſubeſt, tutior eſt in potione, quam [29]in eſca."’ that is, it is ſafer to exceed in drinking than in eating. But every kind of intemperance is hurtful.
LI. During the continuance of contagi⯑ous diſeaſes, it is improper to go abroad in⯑to the ſtreets before breakfaſt, and it would be proper for thoſe that are obliged to go abroad before this meal, to take a draught of new milk to which a little good brandy has been added.
LII. Such as have weak ſtomachs and are not able to make a hearty breakfaſt, ought to take a glaſs or two of good wine, ſome time before dinner; the addition of a little bark to the wine would be of ſervice*.
[30]LIII. A moderate uſe of ripe fruit, is of great ſervice in preventing putrid diſeaſes; and vegetable acids ſuch as lemon juice, &c. when they agree with the bowels are very proper ingredients in drink. The beſt time for eating fruit is two or three hours before dinner.7
LIV. Sitting up late, and laying long in bed, are hurtful at all times, but by weak⯑ening the body become particularly dange⯑rous during the prevalence of infectious [31]diſeaſes. A moderate degree of exerciſe in the open air which is at all times proper for health, is particularly neceſſary when contagion reigns. Cold bathing is an uſe⯑ful aſſiſtant in the prevention of diſeaſes.
LV. Nothing ſo much prediſpoſes a per⯑ſon to receive infection, as to entertain a conſtant dread of catching any diſeaſe. No⯑thing weakens the whole body ſo much as conſtant anxiety and fear; and as I have already remarked, whatever tends to dimi⯑niſh the vigour of the body, acts powerful⯑ly in laying the foundation of diſeaſe. A fearleſs diſpoſition is beſt calculated to en⯑able the body to reſiſt any contagious diſ⯑order*.
[32]LVI. Nothing is more injurious to health than to walk late in the evening: dews be⯑gin to fall as ſoon as the ſun is ſet, and walking abroad after this time, has in all countries been found to be a powerful cauſe of producing diſeaſes.
POSTSCRIPT.
[]AS putrid diſeaſes are very common and violent in hot countries, it is very ne⯑ceſſary for Europeans who viſit thoſe cli⯑mates to be well informed, of the ſigns of an unhealthy country, that they may be on their guard as ſoon as they enter any fo⯑reign region.
By the beſt judges the following are conſi⯑dered as chiefly demanding notice.
1. A ſudden and great alteration in the air at ſunſet, from intolerable heat to a chilling cold. This is perceived as ſoon as the ſun is down, and is for the moſt part accompanied with a heavy fall of dew; it ſhews an unhealthy ſwampy ſoil; the na⯑ture of which is ſuch, that no ſooner the ſun-beams are withdrawn, than the vapours emitted from it, render the air damp, raw, and chilling in the moſt ſultry climates; ſo that even under the equator in ſome un⯑healthy [34]places, the night-air is very cold to an European conſtitution.
2. Thick fogs, chiefly after ſun-ſet, ariſ⯑ing from the valleys, and particularly from the mud, ſlime, and other impurities. In hot countries the ſmell of theſe fogs, may be compared to that of a new cleaned ditch. Diſeaſes therefore ariſing from this cauſe, generally take place in the night, or before ſun-riſing.
3. Numerous ſwarms of flies, gnats, and other inſects, which attend ſtagnated air, and unhealthy places covered with wood.
4. When all butchers meat ſoon cor⯑rupts, and in a few hours becomes full of maggots; when metals are quickly ruſted on being expoſed to the air; and when a corpſe becomes intolerably offenſive in leſs than ſix hours; theſe are proofs of a cloſe, hot, and unwholeſome country. And in ſuch places during exceſſive heats and great calms, it is not uncommon for Europeans, eſpecially ſuch as are of a groſs habit of bo⯑dy, to be ſeized at once with moſt alarm⯑ing, and fatal ſymptoms of what is called the [35]yellow-fever, without even any previous complaint of ſickneſs, or other ſymptom of the diſeaſe, and the patient has often been carried off in leſs than forty-eight hours.
5. A ſort of ſandy ſoil, commonly a ſmall looſe white ſand, as that at Penſaco⯑la, Whydah, and the iſland of Bonaviſta, which is found by experience to be injuri⯑ous to health. The peſtiferous vapours ari⯑ſing during the ſummer months, and in the heat of the day from ſuch a ſandy ſoil, is beſt characteriſed from its effects in the ex⯑tenſive deſarts of Aſia and Africa. It there conſtitutes what is called the Samiel Wind; a blaſt which in the parched deſart, proves inſtantly fatal both to man and beaſt; but when it paſſes over a ſoil well covered with graſs and vegetables has its effects greatly mitigated: it is however even then always productive of ſickneſs. Thus the ſouth⯑erly winds, while they blow from the de⯑deſarts of Lybia, in the ſummer, at Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, produce an unhcalthy ſeaſon; and at Madraſs the winds, which in the months of April and May, paſs over a large tract of ſand, are always hot, diſa⯑greeable, and unwholeſome.
[36]During theſe land winds, ſudden guſts of a more hot and ſuffocating nature, are often obſerved to come from thoſe ſands, once or twice, or even more frequently in a day, which ſeem to be this vapour in a purer form. Theſe guſts paſs very quick⯑ly, and affect perſons who happen to ſtand with their faces towards them, in the ſame manner as the hot air, which iſſues from a burning furnace, or from a heated oven, and obliges them immediately to turn away from it in order to recover breath.
The effect of this hot ſuffocating blaſt on the human body, even when mitigated by paſſing through a moiſt atmoſphere, is the ſame as that of intenſe cold; it ſhuts up every pore of the ſkin, and entirely ſtops the perſpiration of ſuch as are expoſed to it. Theſe blaſts come only in the day time and always from the deſarts.
Water is the only known corrector or antidote againſt them; hence, coarſe thick clothes kept conſtantly wet, and hung up at the windows, or doors, greatly mitigate their violence. A houſe ſo built as to have no doors, or windows, towards the deſarts, [37]is an excellent protection againſt their per⯑nicious effects.
That the heat of theſe land-winds, as alſo of the ſudden guſts which accompany them, proceed from large tracts of land, heated by the ſun, is evident from the in⯑creaſed heat, and ſuffocating quality of thoſe winds, in proportion as the day ad⯑vances, and as the heat of the ſeaſon is in⯑creaſed.
The oppoſite winds blowing from each ſide of the Balagate-Mountains, are a far⯑ther proof of this. Thoſe mountains, run⯑ning from north to ſouth, divide the hither peninſula of India into two unequal parts, and ſeparate what is called the Malabar, from the Coromandel coaſt. To the for⯑mer they are very near, but at a great diſ⯑tance from the latter. The winds blow⯑ing from theſe hills, are on the Malabar coaſt always remarkably cool; but on the the coaſt of Coromandel, in the months of April, May, June, and July, are extremely hot and ſuffocating as they paſs over a large tract of intermediate ſand, heated during theſe months by an almoſt vertical ſun.
[38]Hence the Malabar coaſt is always co⯑vered with an agreeable verdure; whereas the coaſt of Coromandel, during the conti⯑nuance of theſe hots winds, ſeems a barren wilderneſs, nothing appearing green except the trees.
The next conſiderations for ſuch as viſit unhealthy climates, are ſuch employments as are particularly dangerous to Europeans on their firſt arrival. And according to the opinion of Doctor Lind, of Haſtar, who ſerved long as a Surgeon in the Royal Na⯑vy, one of ſuch dangerous employments is that of cutting down of trees, ſhrubs, &c. or clearing the ground, as it is called. Of the unhealthineſs of this employment there are two remarkable inſtances. At the con⯑cluſion of the former war, the captain of a ſhip went on ſhore at the iſland of Domi⯑nica, with twelve of his men, to cut down the wood, and clear a piece of ground, which he intended to have purchaſed; but in a few days ſickneſs obliged him to deſiſt from this dangerous work; the cap⯑tain and eleven of his men being ſeized with violent fevers which ended in obſti⯑nate agues, and of which ſeveral died; and [39]the ſurvivors, during their lives, had fits of the ague on the return of an eaſt wind.
The Ludlow-caſtle, a ſhip of war, in a voyage to the Coaſt of Guinea, alſo loſt twenty-five of her men, at Sierra Leona, who were employed in cutting down wood for the ſhip. This is an occupation that has often proved deſtructive to Europeans in thoſe climates, and in which they ought never to be employed, eſpecially during the rainy ſeaſon; there being many inſtances of white perſons, when cutting down the woods at that ſeaſon, who have been taken ill in the morning, and have died before night.
Another evil not leſs dangerous, is the ſending of Europeans in open boats after ſunſet, where the ſoil is ſwampy, or where there are great night fogs. The ſingle duty of fetching freſh killed butchers meat, an⯑nually in the Eaſt and Weſt Indies, deſ⯑troys ſeveral thouſand ſeamen. In thoſe parts of the world, butchers meat muſt be brought on board at night immediately af⯑ter it is killed, otherwiſe it will not be fit for uſe next day; but a contract made with [40]the natives to ſend it on board, would be the means of preſerving many uſeful lives.
At Batavia, a boat, belonging to the Medway man of war, that attended on ſhore every night, was three times ſucceſ⯑ſively manned, not one having ſurvived that ſervice. They were all taken ill in the night when on ſhore, or when return⯑ing on board; ſo that at length the officers were obliged to employ none but the na⯑tives on that ſereice.
Since then it is ſo unhealthy for Euro⯑peans to be expoſed in open boats to the night fog, it muſt appear, that ſending them unſheltered in open boats, far up rivers in unhealthy climates, for wood, water, trade, or other purpoſes, muſt be attended with the moſt fatal conſequences.
Burying the dead in ſwampy countries, is an occupation that has proved fatal to many, and which ought to be entruſted to to the natives of the country. The efflu⯑via from the ground when newly opened, whether from graves or ditches, are far more dangerous than from the ſame ſwampy [41]ſoil, when the ſurface is undiſturbed; nay, in ſome places it has been found almoſt certain death, for an European to dig a grave, unleſs long ſeaſoned to the country.
In all caſes where it is practicable, ſhips which viſit thoſe unhealthy countries, ſhould anchor at as great diſtance as poſſi⯑ble from ſhore; or if obliged to anchor near marſhy grounds, or ſwamps, eſpecially in ſummer, or hot weather, and when the wind blows directly from thence, the gun⯑ports in ſhips of war, that would admit the hurtful land breeze ought to be kept ſhut, eſpecially at night. Or if the ſhip rides with her head to the wind, a thick ſail ought to be put on the foremaſt, along which the ſmoke from the fire-place might be made to play and aſcend; any inconve⯑nience that the ſmoke might occaſion, would be amply compenſated, by its keep⯑ing off the direct ſteam, of the ſwampy vapour. The beſt preventative againſt the the miſchevous impreſſion of a putrid fog, or of a marſhy exhalation, is a cloſe, ſhel⯑tered, and covered place, ſuch as the lower apartments of a ſhip, or a houſe, in which there are no doors or windows facing the [42]ſwamps. If in ſuch places a fire is kept, either at the doors or other inlets to a houſe, or in the chambers, as is practiſed in ſome unhealthy countries during the rainy or foggy ſeaſon, it will prove an excellent and effectual protection againſt the injuries of bad air. On board of ſhips alſo, fires may be made at the hathways; and of the good effects of this, we have the following ex⯑ample. When the Edgar, a ſhip of war of ſixty guns, was upon the coaſt of Guinea, in the year 1768, her men were very ſick⯑ly and many of them died; whereas it was obſerved, that in a ſloop of war, that was conſtantly in company with her, few were taken ill, and not one died during the whole voyage. This could be aſcribed to no other cauſe, but that in the ſloop the fire-place for cooking victuals, was on the the ſame level with the deck where the men lay; and every morning when the fire was lighted, eſpecially when there was but little wind, the ſmoke from the cook-room ſpread itſelf all over the ſhip, and particu⯑larly over thoſe parts where the men lay; but from the conſtruction of the fire-place of the Edgar, no ſmoke from it ever came between her decks. Perſons on board any [43]ſhip whatever are much ſafer, than thoſe that make inland excurſions in open boats. The intolerable heat at noon often obliges ſuch perſons to be in a manner half-naked; while a violent ſweat iſſues from every pore on the ſkin.
An approach to unwholeſome ſwamps, at this time, is apt to produce every ſymp⯑tom of the moſt dangerous fever. But if they happen to paſs them at night, or lay near them in an open boat, the air from thoſe ſwamps is perceived to be quite chill and cold; in ſo much that warm thick clothing becomes abſolutely neceſſary, to guard the body againſt the impreſſions of ſo great an alteration in the air, and againſt its hurtful quality, for its effects then on the moſt healthy often produce diſeaſes that quickly terminate in death.
But when ſuch expoſure becomes una⯑voidable, the only method is then to defend the body as much as poſſible againſt the pernicious effluvia with which the air abounds. Thoſe employed in cutting down wood, or in other laborious and dangerous ſervices in hot climates, during the heat of [44]the day, ought to have their heads covered with a bladder dipt in vinegar, and to waſh their mouths with the ſame liquor; and they ought morning and evening to take a doſe of Tincture of Bark.
They ſhould leave off labour before ſun⯑ſet, and not return to work till the ſun has had time to diſperſe the unwholeſome va⯑pours and dews. Thoſe who from neceſ⯑ſity muſt remain on ſhore, and ſleep in dan⯑gerous places, muſt take care not to ſleep on the ground, expoſed to dews, but in hammocks in a cloſe tent, ſtanding on a dry ſand, gravel, or chalk, near the ſea⯑ſhore. The door of this tent ſhould open to the ſea, and the back part ſhould be pro⯑tected from the land breeze, by being ſecur⯑cured with double canvaſs, covered with branches of trees. But in ſuch caſes a hut is preferable to a tent, if it is well thatch⯑ed, to prove a defence from the heat of the ſun by day, and from the dews by night.
When the air is chill, and moiſt, a fire ſhould be kept in and about the tent or hut, as the beſt means of purifying ſuch unwholeſome air.
[45]It is the cuſtom with the Negros in Gui⯑nea, as alſo of ſome Indians, to have a fire producing a little ſmoke, conſtantly burn⯑ing in their huts where they ſleep. This not only corrects the moiſture of the night, but alſo, by occaſioning more ſmoke than heat, renders the damp from the earth leſs hurtful. Doctor Lind gives us an inſtance of a Guinea ſhip being up one of the rivers for trade, and it was found to be very dan⯑gerous to ſleep on ſhore, without which their trade could not be ſo conveniently carried on. Firſt the captain, then the mate, and two or three of the ſeamen were taken ill; each of them the morning after they had lain on ſhore. By theſe accidents the men were greatly intimidated from laying on ſhore, till the ſurgeon offered to try the experiment on himſelf. Next morning, when he awaked, he found himſelf ſeized as the reſt, with every ſymptom of fever. He immediately acquainted one of the Ne⯑groes with his ſituation, who carried him to his hut, and ſet him down in the ſmoke of it; when all the ſymptoms of fever ſoon left him: he then took a doſe of the Tinc⯑ture of Bark, and found himſelf very well.
[46]Thus inſtructed by the Negroe, he order⯑ed a large fire to dry the hut he ſlept in; and afterwards had every night, a ſmall fire ſufficient to raiſe a gentle ſmoke, without occaſioning a troubleſome heat; and by theſe means, he and ſeveral others uſing the ſame precautions, ſlept many nights on ſhore without any inconvenience.
I ſhould next proceed to give ſome di⯑rections concerning the mode of living that ought to be followed by Europeans in warm climates; but as the limits fixed for theſe pages, prevent my entering fully into the ſubject, I am obliged with ſome reluc⯑tance to conclude this performance, by mentioning that together with the cauſes produced by an unwholeſome climate, the exceſſes of European debaucheries carried into thoſe countries, tend greatly to bring on diſeaſes. Good living is in all countries neceſſary to health; but exceſs of drinking in a warm climate is a matter of ſerious conſequence. In ſhort, the utmoſt atten⯑tion ſhould be paid to cleanlineſs; to uſe food as eaſy of digeſtion as can be procur⯑ed, to avoid fatigue, and all exceſs in liv⯑ing. [47]I therefore beg leave to recommend the advice given by Celſus, as well merit⯑ing the utmoſt attention by thoſe expoſed to unhealthy climates.
Appendix A ERRATA.
Page 24, line 13. for contageous, read contagious. P. 28, l. 1. for effects, read affects. P. 29, l. 17. for cam⯑pain, read campaign P. 40, l. 11. for ſereice, read ſer⯑vice. P. 41, l. 23, for miſchevous, read miſchievous. P. 45, l. 1. for Negros, read Negroes.
- Citation Suggestion for this Object
- TextGrid Repository (2020). TEI. 5526 The method of preventing and removing the causes of infectious diseases written in plain simple language by George Borthwick. University of Oxford Text Archive. . https://hdl.handle.net/21.T11991/0000-001A-6007-0