A LECTURE Read at the Philoſophical Society in New⯑caſtle, on Nov. the 8th, 1775.

IT being my turn to Lecture, I beg to give ſome thoughts on this important queſtion, viz. Whether mankind, in ſociety, reap all the advantages from their natural and equal rights of property in land and liberty, which in that ſtate they poſſibly may, and ought to expect? And as I hope you, Mr. Preſident, and the good company here are ſincere friends to truth, I am under no apprehenſions of giving offence by de⯑fending her cauſe with freedom.

That property in land and liberty among men, in a ſtate of nature, ought to be equal, few, one would fain hope, would be fooliſh enough to deny. Therefore, taking this to be granted the country of any people, in a native ſtate, is properly their common, in which each of them has an equal property, with free liberty to ſuſtain himſelf and family with the animals, fruits, and other products thereof. Thus ſuch a people reap jointly the whole advantages of their country, or neighbour⯑hood, without having, their right in ſo doing, called in queſ⯑tion by any, not even by the moſt ſelfiſh and corrupt. For upon what muſt they live, if not upon the productions of the coun⯑try in which they reſide? Surely to deny them that right is, in effect, denying them a right to live.—Well, methinks ſome are now ready to ſay, but is it not lawful, reaſonable, and juſt for this people to ſell, or make a preſent, even of the whole of their country, or common, to whom they will, to be held by them and their heirs, even for ever?

To this I anſwer, If their poſterity require no groſſer mate⯑rials to live and move upon than air, it would certainly be very ill-natured, to diſpute their right of parting with what of their [6]own, their poſterity would never have occaſion for; but if their poſterity cannot live but as groſsly as they do, the ſame groſs materials muſt be left them to live upon. For a right to deprive any thing of the means of living, ſuppoſes a right to deprive it of life; and this right anceſtors are not ſuppoſed to have over their poſterity.

Hence it is plain, that the land or earth, in any country or neighbourhood, with every thing in or on the ſame, or per⯑shining thereto, belongs at all times to the living inhabitants of the ſaid country or neighbourhood in an equal manner. For, as I ſaid before, there is no living but on land and its produc⯑tions, conſequently, what we cannot live without, we have the ſame property in, as in our lives.

Now, as ſociety ought properly to be nothing but a mutual agreement among the inhabitants of a country, to maintain the natural rights and privileges of one another againſt all oppoſers, whether foreign or domeſtic, it ſhould lead one to expect to find thoſe rights and privileges no farther infringer upon, among men pretending to be in that ſtate, than neceſſity abſo⯑lutely required. I ſay again, it ſhould lead one to think ſo. But I am afraid, whoever does will be mightily miſtaken.—However, as the truth here is of much importance to be known, let it be boldly ſought out; in order to which, it may not be improper to trace the preſent method of holding land among men in ſociety, from its original.

If we look back to the origin of the preſent nations, we ſhall fee that the land, with all its appurtenances, was claimed by a few, and divided among themſelves, in as aſſured a manner, as if they had manufactured [...] and it had been the work of their own hands; and by being unqueſtioned, or not called to an account for ſuch uſu [...]ations and unjuſt claims, they fell into a habit of thinking, or, which is the ſame thing to the reſt of mankind, of acting as if the earth was made for or by them, and did not ſcruple to call it their own property, which they might diſpoſe of without regard to any other living crea⯑ture in the univerſe. Accordingly they did ſo, and no man, more than any other creature, could claim a right to ſo much as a blade of graſs, or a nut, or an acc [...]n, a fiſh or a fowl, or any natural production whatever, though to ſave his life, without the permiſſion of the pretended proprietor; and not a foot of land, water, rock, or heath, but was claimed by one or other of thoſe lords; ſo that all things, men as well as other creatures who lived, were obliged to owe their lives to ſome or [7]other's property; conſequently they too, like the brutes, were claimed; and certainly as properly as the wood, herbs, &c., that were nouriſhed by the ſoil. And ſo we find, that whe⯑ther they lived, multiplied, worked, or fought, it was all for their reſpective lords, and they, God bleſs them! moſt graci⯑ouſly accepted of all as their due. For, by granting the means of life, they granted the life itſelf, and of courſe they had a right to all the ſervices-and-advantages that the life or death of the creatures they gave life to could yield.

Thus the title of gods ſeems ſuitably enough applied to ſuch great beings: nor is it to be wondered at that no ſervices could be thought too great by poor, dependent, needy wretches, to ſuch mighty and all ſufficient lords, in whom they ſeemed to live and move and have their being. Thus were the firſt land-holders uſurpers and tyrant; and all who have ſince poſ⯑ſeſſed their lands, have done ſo by right of inheritance, pur⯑chaſe, &c. from them; and the preſent proprietors like their predeceſſors, are proud to own it; and like them too, they exclude all others from the leaſt pretence to their reſpective properties. And any one of them ſtill can, by laws of their own making (for they are the landlords alone who make the laws) oblige every living creature to remove from off his property, (which, to the great diſtreſs of mankind, is too oft put in execution); ſo, of conſequence, were all the land⯑holders to be of one mind, and determined to take their proper⯑ties into their own hands, all the reſt of mankind might go to heaven if they would, for there would be no place found for them here. Thus men may not live in any part of this world, not even where they are born, but as ſt [...]angers, and by the permiſſion of the pretender to the property thereof: which permiſſion is for the moſt part paid extravagantly for, and they are ſtill advancing the terms of permiſſion, though many people are ſo ſtraitened to pay the preſent demands, that it is believed in a ſhort time, if they hold on, there will be few to grant the favour to. And thoſe Land-makers, as we ſhall call them, juſtify all this by the practice of other manufactu⯑rers, who take all they can get for the products of their hands, and becauſe that every one ought to live by his buſineſs as well as he can, and conſequently ſo ought Land-markers.— Now having before ſuppoſed it both proved and allowed, that mankind have as equal and juſt a property in land as they have in liberty, air, or the light and heat of the ſun, and having alſo conſidered upon what hard conditions they enjoy [8]thoſe common gifts of nature, it is plain they are far from reaping all the advantages from them, which they may and ought to expect.

But leſt it ſhould be ſaid, that a ſyſtem whereby they may reap more advantages conſiſtent with the nature of ſociety cannot be propoſed, I will attempt to ſhew you the outlines of ſuch a plan.

Let it be ſuppoſed then, that the whole people in ſome country, after much reaſoning and deliberation, ſhould con⯑clude, that every man has an equal property in the land in the neighbourhood where he reſides. They therefore reſolve, that if they live in ſociety together, it ſhall only be with a view, that every one may reap all the benefits from their natural rights and privileges poſſible. Therefore, a da [...] is appointed on which the inhabitants of each pariſh meet, in their reſpective pariſhes, to take their long-loſt rights into poſſeſſion, and to form themſelves into corporations. So, then each pariſh be⯑comes a corporation, an all the men who are inhabitants be⯑come members or burgers. The land with all that appertains to it, is in every pariſh, made the property of the corporation or pariſh, with as ample power to let, repair or alter all, or any part thereof, as a lord of the manor enjoys over his lands, houſes &c. but the power of alienating the leaſt morſel, in any manner, from the pariſh, either at this or any time here⯑after, is denied For it is ſolemnly agreed to, by the whole nation, that a pariſh that ſhall either ſell, or give away, any part of its landed property, ſhall be looked upon with as much honor and deteſtation, and uſed by them as if they had ſold all their children to be ſlaves, or maſſacred them with their own hands. Thus are there no more nor other landlords, in the whole country than the pariſhes; and each of them is ſo⯑vereign landlord of its own territories.

O hearken! yet beſotted ſons of men. By this one bold reſolve your chains are eternally broken, and your enemies anihilated. By this one reſolve the power, the pride, and the arrogance of the landed intereſt, thoſe univerſal and never ceaſing ſcourges and plunderers of your race, are inſtantane⯑ouſly and for ever broken and cut off. For being thus deprived and ſhorn of their revenues they become like ſhorn Sampſon, weak as other men; weak as the poor dejected wretches whom they have ſo long been grinding and treading under toot.

There you may behold the rent, which the people have [9]paid into the pariſh treaſuries employed by each pariſh in pay⯑ing the government ſo much per pound to make up the ſum, which the parliament or national repreſentation at any time think requiſite; in maintaining and relieving its own poor, and peo⯑ple out of work; in paying the neceſſary Officers their ſala⯑ries; in building, repairing, and adorning its houſes, buddges, and other ſtructures; in making and maintaining convenient and delightful ſtreets, highways, and paſſages both for foot and carriages; in making and maintaining canals, and other conveniences for trade and navigation; in planting and taking in waſte grounds; in providing and keeping up a magazine of ammunition and all forts of arm, ſufficient for all its in habitants in caſe of danger from enemies; in premiums for the encourage⯑ment of agriculture, or any thing elſe thought worthy of encouragement; and, in a word, in doing whatever the people think proper; and not as formerly, to ſupport and ſpread luxury, pride, and all manner of vice. As for corruption in elections, it has now no being or effect among them; all affairs to be determined by voting either in a full meeting of a pariſh, its committees, or in the houſe of Repreſentatives, are done by balloting, ſo that votings, or elections among them, occaſion no animoſities, for none need to let another know for which ſide he votes; all that can be done, therefore, to gain a ma⯑jority of votes for any thing, is to make it appear in the beſt light poſſible by ſpeaking or writing.

Among them government does not meddle in every trifle but on the contrary, allows to each pariſh the power of but⯑ting the laws in force in all caſes, and does not interfere, but when they act manifeſtly to the prejudice of ſociety, and the rights and liberties of mankind as eſtabliſhed in their glorious conſtitution and laws. For the judgment of a pariſh may be as much depended upon as that of a houſe of lords, becauſe they have as little to fear from ſpeaking or voting according to truth, as they

A certain number of neighbouring pariſhes, chuſe delegates to repreſent them in Parliament, Senat [...], or Congreſs: and each of them pays equally towards their maintainance. They are choſen thus: all the candidates are propoſed in every pariſh on the ſame day, when the election by balloting immediately proceeds in all the pariſhes at once, to prevent too great a con⯑courſe at one place, and they who are found to have the majo⯑rity on a proper ſurvey of the ſeveral pole books are acknow⯑ledged to be their repreſentatives.

[10]A man by dwelling a whole year in any pariſh becomes a pariſhioner, or member of its corporation; and retains that privilege, till he lives a full year in ſome other, when he be⯑comes a member in that pariſh, and immediately loſes all his right to the former for ever, unleſs he choſe to go back and recover it, by dwelling again a full year there. Thus none can be a member of two pariſhes at once; and yet a man is always a member of one, though he move ever ſo oft.

If in any pariſh ſhould be dwelling ſtrangers from foreign nations, or people from diſtant pariſhes, who by ſickneſs or other caſualties ſhould become ſo neceſſitous as to require relief before they have acquired a ſettlement by dwelling a full year therein; then this pariſh, as if it were their pro⯑per ſettlement, immediately takes them under its humane protection, and the expence thus incurred by any pariſh in providing for thoſe not properly their own poor, being taken an account of, is deducted by the pariſh, out of the firſt payment made to the ſtar [...]. Thus poor ſtrangers being the poor of the State, are not looked upon by their new neighbours where they have come to reſide with an envi⯑ous evil eye left they ſhould become burthen ſome; neither are the poor haraſſed about in the extremity of diſtreſs, and perhaps in a dying condition, to gratify the litigiouſneſs of pariſhes.

All the men in the pariſh, at times of their own chuſing, repair together to a field for that purpoſe, with their officers, arms, banners, and all ſorts of martial muſic, in order to learn or retain the complete art of war; there they become ſoldiers! Yet not to moleſt their neighbours unprovoked, but to be able to defend what none have a right to diſpute their title to the enjoyment of; and woe be to them who occaſion them to do this! they would uſe them worſe than highwayman, or pirates, if they got them in their power.

There is no army kept in pay among them, in times of peace: as all have a property in their country to defend, they are alike ready to run to arms when their country is in danger: and when an army is to be ſent abroad, it is ſoon raiſed, of ready trained ſoldiers, either as volunteers, or by caſting lots in each [...]ariſh for ſo many men.

Beſides, as each man has a vote in all the affairs of his pariſh, and for his own ſake muſt wiſh well to the public, the land is let in very ſmall farms, which makes employment for a greater number of hands, and makes more victualling of all kinds be raiſed.

[11]There are no tolls or taxes of any kind paid among them, by native or foreigner, but the aforeſaid rent. The govern⯑ment, poor, roads, &c. &c. as ſaid before, are all maintainep by the pariſhes with the rent: on which account, all wares, manufactures, allowable trade, employments, or actions, are entirely duty-free. Freedom to do any thing whatever cannot there be bought; a thing is either entirely prohibited as theft or murder; or entirely free to every one without tax or price.

When houſes, lands, or any tenements become vacant they are let publicly by the pariſh officers in ſeven years [...]aſes to the beſt bidder. This way prevents colluſion to the prejudice of the pariſh revenue and likewiſe prevents partiality.

Methinks I now behold the pariſh republics, like fraternal or benefit ſocieties each met at quarter-day to pay their rents and to ſettle their accounts as well with the ſtate as with all their parochial officers and workmen, their ſeveral accounts having been examined ſome days before.

On that day which is always a day, not, as now of ſor⯑row, but of gladneſs, when the rents are all paid in, and the ſum total proclaimed, the firſt account to be ſettled is the demand made by the national repreſentation of ſo much per pound in behalf of the ſtate, which ſum is ſet apart to be ſent to the national treaſury. Another ſum is alſo ſet apart for the pariſh treaſury to anſwer contingencies till next quarter-day. Next the ſalaries of the pariſh officers are paid. Then are paid the reſpective bills of their workmen as maſons, bricklayers, carpenters, glaziers, painters, &c. who have been employed in building or repairing the houſes and other pariſh buildings. After theſe come the paviour, lamplighters, watchmen, ſcavengers, and all the other work-people employed by the pariſh, to receive their demands, until none remain. Then the reſidue of the public money or rents after all public demands are thus ſatisfied, which is always two-thirds, more or leſs, of the whole ſum collected, comes laſtly to be diſpoſed of, which is the moſt pleaſant part of the buſineſs to every one. The number of pariſhioners, and the ſum thus le [...] to be divided among them being announced, each, without reſpect of perſons is ſent home joyfully with an equal ſhare.

[12] Though I have only ſpoke of pariſhioners receiving dividends, which may be underſtood as if men only were meant to ſhare the reſidue of the rents, yet I would have no objection, if the people thought proper, to divide it among the whole number of ſouls, male and female, married and ſingle in a pariſh from the infant of a day old to the ſecond infantage of hoary hairs. For as all of every age, legitimate and illegitimate, have a right to live on the public common, and as that common, for the ſake of cultivation, muſt be let out for rent, that rent, then, ought to be equally enjoyed by every human being, in⯑ſtead of the foil which they are thus deprived of.

But what makes this proſpect yet more glorious is, that after this empire of right and reaſon is thus eſtabliſhed it will ſtand for ever. Force and corruption attempting its downfall ſhall equally be baffled, and all other nations ſtruck with won⯑der and admiration at its happineſs and ſtability, ſhall follow the example; and thus the whole earth ſhall at laſt be happy and live like brethren.